Adequate set of connectives

Lila Kari
The University of Western Ontario

Adequate set of connectives

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Adequate set of connectives

A remarkable property of the standard set of connectives
(, , , , ) is the fact that for every truth table
p
1

q
1

...
...

...

*
*
*
*

there is a formula (depending on the variables p, q, . . .

and using only the standard connectives) that has
exactly this truth table.
For every truth table there is Boolean function
f (p, q, . . . ) with exactly this truth table.
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Posts observation
Any set of connectives with the capability to express all
truth tables is said to be adequate.
Post (1921) observed that the standard connectives are
adequate.

Emil Post, 1897-1954

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Proving adequacy of a connective set

We can show that a set S of connectives is adequate if we can

express all the standard connectives in terms of S.

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Proving adequacy of a connective set

We can show that a set S of connectives is adequate if we can

express all the standard connectives in terms of S.
Formulas A B and A B are tautologically
equivalent.

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Proving adequacy of a connective set

We can show that a set S of connectives is adequate if we can

express all the standard connectives in terms of S.
Formulas A B and A B are tautologically
equivalent.
Then is definable in terms of (or is reducible to or
can be expressed in terms of) and .

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Proving adequacy of a connective set

We can show that a set S of connectives is adequate if we can

express all the standard connectives in terms of S.
Formulas A B and A B are tautologically
equivalent.
Then is definable in terms of (or is reducible to or
can be expressed in terms of) and .
Similarly, is definable in terms of and because
A B is tautologically equivalent to A B.

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Theorem. {, , } is an adequate set of connectives.

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Theorem. {, , } is an adequate set of connectives.

Proof.
For any formulas A, B,
A |=|A
A B |=|A B
A B |=|A B
A B |=|A B
A B |=|(A B) (B A).

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Theorem. {, , } is an adequate set of connectives.

Proof.
For any formulas A, B,
A |=|A
A B |=|A B
A B |=|A B
A B |=|A B
A B |=|(A B) (B A).
All the five standard connectives can be expressed in terms of
, , , therefore {, , } is an adequate set of connectives.

Adequate set of connectives

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Theorem. {, , } is an adequate set of connectives.

Proof.
For any formulas A, B,
A |=|A
A B |=|A B
A B |=|A B
A B |=|A B
A B |=|(A B) (B A).
All the five standard connectives can be expressed in terms of
, , , therefore {, , } is an adequate set of connectives.
Corollary {, }, {, }, and {, } are adequate.

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One connective is enough

Schroder showed in 1880 that each of the standard connectives is
definable in terms of a single binary connective , where the truth
table associated with is

p
1
1
0
0

Adequate set of connectives

q
1
0
1
0

pq
0
0
0
1

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Proof of adequacy
We can express in terms of the standard connectives by
p q |=|p q, and also the standard connectives in terms of by

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Proof of adequacy
We can express in terms of the standard connectives by
p q |=|p q, and also the standard connectives in terms of by
p |=| p p

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Proof of adequacy
We can express in terms of the standard connectives by
p q |=|p q, and also the standard connectives in terms of by
p |=| p p
p q |=| (p p) (q q)

Adequate set of connectives

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Proof of adequacy
We can express in terms of the standard connectives by
p q |=|p q, and also the standard connectives in terms of by
p |=| p p
p q |=| (p p) (q q)
p q |=| (p q) (p q)

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Proof of adequacy
We can express in terms of the standard connectives by
p q |=|p q, and also the standard connectives in terms of by
p
pq
pq
pq

|=|
|=|
|=|
|=|

pp
(p p) (q q)
(p q) (p q)
((p p) q) ((p p) q)

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Proof of adequacy
We can express in terms of the standard connectives by
p q |=|p q, and also the standard connectives in terms of by
p
pq
pq
pq
pq

|=|
|=|
|=|
|=|
|=|

pp
(p p) (q q)
(p q) (p q)
((p p) q) ((p p) q)
((p p) q) ((q p) p).

Thus it follows that a single connective is adequate.

Consequently, to test a given S for being adequate it suffices to test
if can be expressed by S.
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Sheffer stroke
In 1913 Sheffer showed that the Sheffer stroke | with associated truth
table
p
1
1
0
0

q
1
0
1
0

p|q
0
1
1
1

is also a single binary connective in terms of which the standard

connectives can be expressed.

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Proving inadequacy
How do we show that a given set S of connectives is not adequate?

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Proving inadequacy
How do we show that a given set S of connectives is not adequate?
Show that some standard connective cannot be expressed by S.

Adequate set of connectives

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Proving inadequacy
How do we show that a given set S of connectives is not adequate?
Show that some standard connective cannot be expressed by S.
Example. The set S = {} is not adequate.

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Proving inadequacy
How do we show that a given set S of connectives is not adequate?
Show that some standard connective cannot be expressed by S.
Example. The set S = {} is not adequate.
Proof. To see this, note that a formula depending on only one
variable and which uses only the connective has the property that
its truth value for a value assignment that makes p = 0 is always 0.

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Proving inadequacy
How do we show that a given set S of connectives is not adequate?
Show that some standard connective cannot be expressed by S.
Example. The set S = {} is not adequate.
Proof. To see this, note that a formula depending on only one
variable and which uses only the connective has the property that
its truth value for a value assignment that makes p = 0 is always 0.
In order to define the negation p in terms of , there should exist a
formula f depending on the variable p and using only the connective
such that p |=|f .

Adequate set of connectives

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Proving inadequacy
How do we show that a given set S of connectives is not adequate?
Show that some standard connective cannot be expressed by S.
Example. The set S = {} is not adequate.
Proof. To see this, note that a formula depending on only one
variable and which uses only the connective has the property that
its truth value for a value assignment that makes p = 0 is always 0.
In order to define the negation p in terms of , there should exist a
formula f depending on the variable p and using only the connective
such that p |=|f .
However, for a value assignment v such that v (p) = 1, we have
v (p) = 0 and therefore v (f ) = 0, which shows that p and f cannot
be tautologically equivalent.
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A ternary connective
Let us use the symbol for the ternary connective whose truth table
is given by

p
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0

Adequate set of connectives

q
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0

r
1 1
0 1
1 0
0 0
1 1
0 0
1 1
0 0

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A ternary connective

It is easy to see that for any value assignment v we have

v ( (p, q, r )) = v (q) if v (p) = 1 and v (r ) if v (p) = 0.

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A ternary connective

It is easy to see that for any value assignment v we have

v ( (p, q, r )) = v (q) if v (p) = 1 and v (r ) if v (p) = 0.
This is the familiar if-then-else connective from computer science,
namely
if p then q else r

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Comments

We can consider now propositional logic based not upon the five
common connectives, but upon any adequate set of connectives, for
instance {, }.
Let Lp0 be a sublanguage of Lp obtained by deleting from Lp the
three connectives , , , and let Form(Lp0 ) be the set of formulas
of Lp0 .
Theorem. Form(Lp0 ) = Form(Lp ).

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Proof
Proof.
Obviously, Form(Lp0 ) Form(Lp ).
Conversely, for A Form(Lp ) we define (by recursion) its translation
A0 into Lp0 as follows:
A0 = A for atomic variable A,
(A)0 = A0 ,
(A B)0 = A0 B0 ,
(A B)0 = (A0 B0 ),
(A B)0 = (A0 B0 ),
(A B)0 = (A B)0 (B A)0 =
= (A0 B0 ) (A0 B0 )

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