Edmund Li

MAGNETOSTATICS
The magnetic field produced by steady currents or permanently magnetized material is called
magnetostatics. On top of the electrostatic force experience by charges in an electric field, moving
charges in an external magnetic field also experience a magnetic force:

Proportional to the charge

Perpendicular to both the magnetic field density and velocity of the charge

The total electromagnetic force on a charge q is then given by Lorentz force equation:

F UNDAMENTAL P OSULATES OF M AGNETOSTATICS IN F REE

S PACE
There are two fundamental postulates of magnetostatics:

Where,

is the permeability of free space.

These two postulates are analogous to the electrostatic ones, and by a similar nature we can apply the
divergence and stokes theorem to find the integral form of the postulates.
The first postulate is the law of conservation of magnetic flux which indicates that magnetic flux lines
always close upon themselves lines of flux start at the north pole and end at a south pole. This means
that isolated magnetic poles cannot exist.

The second postulate leads to Amperes law in which the circulation of the magnetic flux density in free
space around any closed path is equal to the permeability of free space multiplied by the total current
flowing through the surface bounded by the path:

Edmund Li
The magnetic field lines
around a wire form circles.
Hence the magnetic field is
the same everywhere on a
circular path centred on the
wire and lying in a plane
perpendicular to the wire. If
we vary the current and
distance from the wire, we
find that B is proportional to
the current and inversely
proportional to the distance
from the wire.

Example
An infinitely long, straight conductor, with a circular cross section of radius b carries a steady
current I. Determine the magnetic flux both inside and outside the conductor
a)

Inside the conductor:

Using Amperes law and noting that the magnetic flux is parallel to the contour and also the fact
that
:

b) Outside the conductor:

Note that if the problem had been a thin tube carrying a surface current, then inside the tube,
outside the tube, the total surface current is

giving a magnetic field density of:

and

Edmund Li

Example
Determine the magnetic flux density inside a closely wound toroidal coil with an air core having
N turns and carrying a current I. The toroid has a inner radius of a and an outer radius of b.

Cylindrical symmetry ensures that

path about the axis of the toroid.

has only a

component and is constant along any circular

Example
Determine the magnetic flux density inside an infinitely long solenoid with air core having n
closely wound turns per unit length and carrying a current I.
Note that there is no magnetic field outside of the solenoid. We construct a rectangular contour
of length L that is partially inside and partially outside the solenoid.

Edmund Li

Example
A thin, infinitely large sheet lying in the yz plane carries a current of linear current density . The
current is in the y direction, and represents the current per unit length measured along the z
axis. Find the magnetic field near the sheet.
In this situation, an infinitely large sheet will form an almost continuous field parallel to the
sheet, hence we use a small rectangular path. We note that the sides of w length have an element
of perpendicular to the field, and do not contribute to the line integral. On the two other
sides however, the line integral is non zero and are the same so:

V ECTOR M AGNETIC P OTENTIAL

Since

is solenoidal, the vector algebra null identity gives us:

Where the vector field A is the vector magnetic potential in (Wb/m). Thus, if we know the magnetic
vector potential of a current distribution, we can find . However, the definition of a vector requires us to
know the curl and its divergence. We must thus choose what
derive Poissons equation

is by using the second postulate to

By the vector identity:

Choosing

yields the divergence of a gradient of the magnetic vector potential:

Which has a general solution of:

Which is analogous to the solution to the scalar Poissons equation

, which gives

Edmund Li

M AGNETIC F LUX
We define the magnetic flux (Wb) as the total of the magnetic flux density over a given area:

Proof:
Since

and we can apply Stokes theorem:

B IOT -S AVART L AW
In many applications we are interested in determining the magnetic field due to a current
carrying circuit where we cannot exploit the symmetry required for Amperes law. In this case
we use Biot Savart Law:

Proof:
For a thin wire of length dl,
potential is given by:

. This means that the general solution of the vector magnetic

Now:

The first term goes to zero since the curl of a vector in the primed coordinates is independent of the
unprimed coordinates. Also:

Edmund Li

Example
A direct current I flows in a straight wire of length 2L. Find the magnetic flux density
located at a distance r from the wire in the bisecting plane.

at a point

Use the alternative form of Biot Savarts law:

Now:

Let

Note that

Example
Calculate the magnetic field at O for the current carrying wire segment shown in the figure. The
wire consists of two straight portions and a circular arc of radius a, which subtends an angle .
The straight segments have an element ds which is parallel to . Hence we only worry about the
curved segment whereby the vectors d and perpendicular:

Applying the right hand thumb rule, the magnetic field goes into the page.

Edmund Li
Example
Consider a circular wire loop of radius a located in the yz plane and carrying a steady current I as
shown. Calculate the magnetic field at an axial point P a distance x from the centre of the loop.

Due to the symmetry of the ring, the y components of the magnetic fields are cancelled.

Using geometry:

We see that x I, a, are constant thus:

M AGNETIC D IPOLE
A magnetic dipole is a closed circulation of electric current, such as a loop of wire. It can be shown that
from the diagram:

Where

is the dipole moment given by:

These equations are of the same form as that seen for the electric dipole where
.

and

Edmund Li

We find that the magnetic dipole moment is a vector:

Whose magnitude is the product of the current in and area of the loop

Whose direction is the direction of the thumb when the finger of right hand is the direction
of current.

M AGNETISATION
Orbiting electrons of atom cause circulating currents and form microscopic magnetic dipoles with
associated magnetic dipole moments . In the absence of an external magnetic field, these magnetic
dipoles have random orientation so the net magnetic moment is zero.
When an external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipole moments are aligned and induce an
additional magnetic moment due to a change in the orbital motion of the electrons. We define the
magnetization vector for a material with magnetic dipole moments of
:

From this, we also can produce the vector magnetic potential:

Which is more commonly expressed as:

We thus find that the magnetization vector is equivalent to both a volume current density and surface
current density:

Edmund Li

M AGNETIC F IELD I NTENSITY

The macroscopic effect of magnetization can be studied by incorporating the equivalent volume current
density:

We define the magnetic field intensity

as:

This means that:

Where is the volume density of free current. By taking the surface integral and Stokess theorem:

Which is another form of Amperes Law the circulation of the magnetic field intensity around any closed
path is equal to the free current flowing through the surface bounded by the path.

Edmund Li

P ERMEABILITY OF M AGNETIC M ATERIAL

When the magnetic properties of the medium are linear and isotropic, the magnetization is directly
proportional to the magnetic field intensity:

Where
into

is known as the magnetic susceptibility, and is dimensionless. Now substitution this equation
yields:

Where is defined as the relative permeability of the medium while is the absolute permeability of
the medium measured in H/m. Depending on the value of we can say that:

: the materials are diamagnetic and the magnetic moment is zero in the absence of an
external field e.g Gold, silver, copper
: The magnetic moments in the paramagnetic material are non zero but small
: The magnetic moments in the ferromagnetic material are aligned in the magnetic
domains.

H YSTERESIS L OOP
When an external field is applied to a ferromagnet, the dipoles in the domains align themselves with the
external field. Even when the external field is removed, party of the alignment will be retained and the
material will become magnetized. To demagnetize the material, it would be necessary to apply a
magnetic field in the opposite direction.
When a strong field is magnetized up to point a along the dotted line, the domain wall movements
become irreversible, and domain rotatation toward the direction of the applied field will occur. When the
applied field is reduced to zero from point a, the B-H relationship will follow along the solid line to path b.
If we apply the applied field in the opposite direction, we then follow the path to cd.

Edmund Li

M AGNETIC C IRCUITS
In this section, we focus out approach on the following sets of equations:

is known as he magnetomotive force (mmf) and is analogous to the emf in an electric circuit. Thus it is
not a force but rather a measure of strength of the magnetic source. It is measured in A-t.
Example
Assume an N turns of wire wound around a toroidal core of ferromagnetic material with permeability
. The core has a mean radius of and a circular cross section of radias
, and a narrow air gap
of length . A steady current flows in the wire. Determine:
a)

The magnetic flux density

b) The magnetic field intensity

in the core

c)

The magnetic field intensity

in the air gap

a)

We start with Amperes Law:

Since the magnetic field intensity vector and the contour are in the same direction then we
simplify the equation to:
Now ignoring fringing effects, the flux in the air gap must be the same as in the core, so we
can say
:
Since the permeability in the core and air gap are different, then the magnetic field intensity
will also be different:

Thus we write amperes law as:

b)
c)

Edmund Li

Note that if the cross section of the core is much smaller than the mean radius of the toroid, then:

And we can write:

Where

is the reluctance (

) of the ferromagnetic core which represents the dc resistance of

straight piece of homogeneous material with a uniform cross section area S. Thus, we may compare these
results to that of electric circuits and make analogies:

Moreover, there are equivalents to the KCL and KVL:

1.
2.

Around a closed path in a magnetic circuit, the algebraic sum of ampere turns is equal to the
algebraic sum of the products of the reluctances and fluxes
The algebraic sum of all the magnetic fluxed flowing through a junction in a magnetic circuit is
zero.

Using these concepts, we can better solve magnetic circuits with delving necessarily into the fundamental
formulas e.g the postulates and Amperes Law.

Edmund Li

Example
Consider the magnetic circuit shown which has steady currents
flowing in the windings of
turns respectively. The core has cross sectional and permeability . Determine the magnetic flux,
in the centre leg.
We draw the magnetic circuit in terms of an electric circuit model and note that:

For loop 1:

For loop 2:

Solving simultaneously yields:

Example
Consider now that the windings are on the centre leg. Determine the magnetic flux density.

For loop 1:

Solving simultaneously then:

Note that it is not always possible to use these methods to solve for

and

using the relationship

and
. This occurs when is not the same or when is a non linear function of . A graphical
approach would then be better. The next example shows how such an approach can be taken.

Edmund Li

Example
By determining the load line, find the intersection of the load line with the BH curve so that
can be found for the core material in the setup shown.

and

By Amperes Law and noting that

This is in the form of the straight line, with the slope

and y intercept of NI. The intersection of

this load line with the BH curve can now be found.

Example
A toroidal magnetic circuit contains an air gap of length 1.5 mm. The mean length of the steel core is
0.3 m with a cross sectional area of
with a mmf=NI=1000.
Assuming no fringing and leakage, find the flux density in the steel.

Edmund Li
Example
An electromagnet consists of three uniform sections:
a) Length of 8 cm and cross sectional area of 0.5
b) Length of 6 cm and a cross sectional area of
c) Air gap of length 0.5 mm and cross sectional area of
Find the current in a 3000 turn coil to produce a flux density of 0.3 T in the airgap. Use the BH curve
of cast steel and neglect any fringing.

Since the cross sectional areas are not the same, then

. However, flux is constant so starting

from the air gap:

In Section A:

Using the BH curve,

corresponds with

. Hence

In section B:

B OUNDARY C ONDITIONS
Consider the pillbox. For a linear and isotropic media and using the first postulate with the divergence
theorem:

Now as

then:

If we consider the tangential component and

Note that
is the surface urrent density through the interface normal to the closed contour, and for
materials with finite conductivity,
.