B2 Chapter 3: 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.

6
PROTEINS AND ENZYMES
Proteins made up of long chain of amino acids, also known as polymers
which are built up as cells known as monomers. The shape of proteins
allow other molecules to fit in it, these carry out processes such as:
- Hormones to control insulin
- Antibodies to destroy antibodies
- Biological catalysts in forms of enzymes speed up processes in the body
by speeding up chemical reactions however these are not
used in the reaction and therefore can be used again.
Enzymes work best at a specific PH level and have optimum
temperatures
- Muscle and tendons structural components
Molecules known as substrates fit into the enzyme protein
due to the amino acids folded to produce a specific shape.
This is known as active site. Enzymes are involved in:
- Changing a molecule into another e.g. changing glucose to
fructose
- Breaking down large molecules into smaller ones e.g.
breaking down insoluble food into smaller soluble molecules
i.e. glucose
Building larger molecules from smaller ones e.g. from amino acids you can
make glucose or proteins to turn it into glycogen

Enzymes work by having the substrate (reactant) fit into the active site of
the enzyme. This is like a key and lock motion, the products both bind
together. Products can then be released from the surface of the enzyme
which is split and the enzyme can be ready to be used again.
Biological reactions are affected by concentration,
temperature and surface area.
- Enzyme controlled reactions increase with
temperature, but only up to about 40 degrees. The
structure of the protein changes and the amino acids
begin to break apart. The enzymes are known to
denature. These can no longer catalyst, so the reaction rate
drops. Human conditions where enzymes work best
are 37o
- Changes in pH also alter the shape of the
molecule, which means enzymes cannot catalyse.
For example, intestinal enzymes have an optimum
pH of about 7.5. Enzymes in the stomach have an
optimum pH of about 2.
ENZYMES IN DIGESTION

 Digested molecules are absorbed by your cells when they are broken down
into smaller, soluble molecules. This chemical breakdown is controlled by
digestive enzymes. These work outside the cells unlike other enzymes.
The digestive enzymes are produced by specialised cells in glands and in
the lining of the gut. The enzymes then pass out of the cells into the gut
where they come into contact with food molecules. As the gut is hollow,
muscular tube it squeezes food and turns it into smaller pieces which have
a large surface area, which allow the enzymes to work on.
Mixed with digestive allows more contact between the enzymes.
Broken down carbohydrates are called carbohydrases e.g. starch. These
are down in your mouth and small intestine to produce sugars. The
reaction is catalysed by an enzyme known as amylase.
- The enzyme amylase is produced in the salivary glands, the pancreas and
the small intestine
Broken down protein are catalysed by protease enzymes by foods such as
meat, fish and cheese to form amino acids.
- Protease enzymes are produced by the stomach, the pancreas and the
small intestine but the breakdown occurs in your stomach and small
intestine.
Fatty acids and glycerol are made in the small intestine which have been
broken down when you intake lipids (fat and oils)
- Lipase enzymes are produced by the pancreas and small intestine
The stomach produces hydrochloric acid which is acidic. This helps
digestion as it kills harmful microorganisms that have
been swallowed. This works at a low pH. Protease
enzymes work best in these conditions.
- The stomach produces a thick layer of mucus,
this provides protection for the walls and
prevents them being digested by the acid and
enzymes.
In the small intestine, the best conditions
needed are alkali, after the stomach. To
neutralise the acid, bile is produced by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder. Protease made in
pancreas need alkali conditions.
- Bile is greenish yellow. Another function for bile is that it emulsifies fats
in food. For example, fats cannot mix with water and stay as large
globules.
- Large fat droplets ---> Small droplet = larger surface area which allows
lipase to chemically break down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
ENZYMES IN INDUSTRY
Enzymes are used in home e.g. enzymes and washing machines are used
to digest stains on clothes.
- Biological detergents may contain protein-digesting and fat-digesting
enzymes (proteases and lipases). These work at low temperature due to

the enzymes working best at this, if the temperature is too high they
denature which means less electricity is needed.
In industry, enzymes are used to bring about reactions at normal
temperatures and pressures that would otherwise require expensive,
energy-demanding equipment. They can be reused. However, most
enzymes are denatured at high temperatures and many are costly to
produce.
Some uses of enzymes in industry:
Enzyme

Use

Protease

Used to pre-digest proteins during the manufacture of baby foods

Lipase

Used - together with protease - in biological detergents to break down

(digest) the substances in stains into smaller, water soluble
substances

Carbohydra
se

Used to convert starch syrup, which is relatively cheap, into sugar

syrup, which is more valuable - for example, as an ingredient in sports
drinks

Isomerase

Used to convert glucose syrup into fructose syrup - fructose is sweeter

than glucose, so it can be used in smaller amounts in slimming foods