Introduction to NDT of Composites

Stephen G. LaRiviere
Boeing Commercial Aircraft
Manufacturing Research & Development

Reasons for non-destructive tests:

Ensure product reliability
Prevent accidents and save human life
Make a profit for the user by:
Ensuring customer satisfaction and to maintaining the
manufacturers good name
Aiding in better product design
Controlling the manufacturing processes
Lowering manufacturing costs
Maintaining a uniform quality level
McMasters 1959

The Role of NDT

NDT is an essential part of manufacturing and
requires trained and experienced inspectors.
NDT methods are used to:
Supplement visual inspection
Avoid costly teardown in gaining access to hidden
structure
Provide early detection of defects before they reach
critical size
Obtain additional information

NDT Utilization Throughout the

Airplane Product Life Cycle
Pre-production for process development

7J7 skin panel

NDT Utilization Throughout the

Airplane Product Life Cycle
During production to provide process information
and ensure part conformance

NDT Utilization Throughout the

Airplane Product Life Cycle
In service to maintain a safe fleet
Ultrasonic
Mechanical Impedance

Acoustic Flaw Detector

Detects skin -toand

NDT Methods
Traditional Methods
Eddy current
Radiography
Ultrasonic
Penetrant
Magnetic particle

Non-traditional Methods
Thermography
Shearography
Bond Testing

Eddy Current Principle of

Operation

Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material

by an induced alternating magnetic field
Instrumentation detects interruptions in the flow of eddy
currents, caused by imperfections, dimensional changes or
changes in the material's conductivity and permeability

Eddy Current
Advantages

Disadvantages

Suitable for inspection of

conductive materials only
Surface must be accessible
to probe
Usually no permanent record
Manual tests require high
degree of operator skill to
properly use test equipment

Highly portable
Moderate cost
Immediate results
Sensitive -to small
imperfections
Minimum part preparation
required

Defect Types: Cracks, corrosion, conductivity, coating measurement

Seldom used for composite inspection

Radiography Principle of
Operation
Penetrating radiation (Xray or gamma ray) passes
through a test piece to
produce an image on a
radiographic film or non
film media
Variations in test part
produce changes in the
amount of radiation
absorbed
Changes in absorption are
captured on the detecting
media

Radiation Source

X-ray beam

Discontinuity

Test object
Detector

Detector Image Plan view

Image density varies with amount of X-rays

reaching the film through the test object

Radiographic Methods
Film

Real-time (a.k.a.
radioscopy)
Digital Radiography
Storage Phosphor
Linear Diode Array
Flat Panel

Radiography - Film
Advantages

Disadvantages

Well proven

Radiation safety hazard

Moderately expensive
Wet-chemical processing
required to develop
Proper interpretation of
results may require high
degree of operator skill

Permanent record of test

results
Minimum part preparation
required

Defect Types: Voids, foreign material, internal damage, core

conditions, water ingestion

Non-film Radiography
Advantages

Disadvantages

Lower recurring costs

Radiation safety hazard

(reduced from film)
Higher initial cost
Proper interpretation of
results may require high
degree of operator skill

Shorter cycle time

Elimination of chemical
processing
Portability

Defect Types: Voids, foreign material, internal damage, core

conditions, water ingestion

Non-Film Radiography
Real-time (a.k.a. radioscopy)
Digital Radiography
Storage Phosphor: Use a flexible imaging plate to produce a
latent image that must be subsequently scanned by a laser and
converted into a video image

Linear Diode Array: Uses an x-ray sensitive photodiode array

in place of film.

Flat Panel Detectors: Consist of a coated Thin Film

Transistor (TFT) array that captures and converts XRay energy into electronic signals

Real Time Radiography Principle of Operation

Image Intensifier used in place of film
Incoming
- rays
X

Cathode Side

Anode Side
Output Phosphor
Screen

ns
lectro
e
o
t
o
ph

Test object

Camera

Input Window
Input
Phosphor
Photocathode

Evacuated
Housing

Electron
Focus Plates

To Display

Real Time Radiography

Advantages

Disadvantages

Inexpensive
Well established
Instantaneous real- time
(dynamic) imaging

Analog device
Detector blooming
(washout)
Limited bit depth
(Typically 4- 5bits usable)
= limited sensitivity
Most applications require
magnification

Real Time Radiography

Linear Diode Arrays - Principle

of Operation
Uses an x-ray sensitive photodiode array in place of film.
X-rays penetrate the
part as a conveyor
belt moves it through
the inspection tunnel

The LDA reads and

converts x-ray energy to
usable data

Conveyor
X-ray Generator

Final image is reconstructed by a computer and

displayed on video monitor

Linear Diode Arrays

Advantages

Disadvantages

Requires movement between

part and detector
Resolution can be limited
Low kV applications only

Robust design
Fast
High dynamic range
No blooming
Digital imaging
Can be tailored to
application

Linear Diode Arrays

Linear Diode Arrays

- ray LDA image of honeycomb structure with excess resin

X

Storage Phosphor Detectors

Principle of Operation
A direct film replacement method, storage phosphor systems use a
flexible imaging plate to produce a latent image that must be
subsequently scanned by a laser and converted into a video image

Image plate readout

Optical
Optical
Scanner
Scanner

Photomultiplier
Photomultiplier Tube
Tube

Laser
Laser Beam
Beam
A/D
A/D
Converter
Converter

Imaging
Imaging
Plate
Plate

110010010010110
110010010010110

Motor

Storage Phosphors
Advantages

Disadvantages

Latent image process no real

time
Dynamic range not quite as
good as latest flat-panel
detectors

Flexible
Good dynamic range
Large area format- does not
require movement between
part/detector
Digital
Proven widely used in
medical community
Not environmentally sensitive

Storage Phosphor Detectors

Imaging plate

Reader/Display

Storage Phosphors

Flat panel Detectors Principle

of Operation
Detectors consist of a coated Thin Film
Transistor (TFT) array that captures and
converts X-Ray energy into electronic signals
Electronic signals are read-out as digital
values by the system electronics and software
Digitized data is then presented on a video
display for interpretation

Flat panel Detectors

Magnified View of TFT Matrix from an Amorphous
Selenium -X ray Detector Element
Arrow points to the center portion of a
single detector element (139x139
microns)
Detector element is shown in
comparison to the width of a human
hair (80 microns)
A 14 x 17 detector array contains
more than seven million elements

Flat Panel Detectors

Advantages

Disadvantages

High dynamic range up to

16 bit
High contrast sensitivity
Easily incorporated with
robotics
Some capable of real-time
(dynamic) imaging
High energy capable

Expensive
Fragile
Temperature sensitive
Bad pixel issues
Image latency (ghosting)
may occur

Digital Radiography - Flat panel

Detectors
Sample Flat-Panel Detectors

Flat panel Detectors

Amorphous silicon images

Honeycomb graphite composite with

entrapped bagging and excess resin

Honeycomb graphite composite with

excess resin

Thermography

Thermography
Methods
Liquid Crystal and Electronic
Thermography
Pulsed Thermography (Thermal Wave
Imaging)
Ultrasonic Thermography
(ThermoSonix)

Liquid Crystal Thermography Principle of Operation

Inspector

Vacuum Frame
Part

Lamp

Hot Air
Gun

Hot
Good Area
Cold

Water in
Honeycomb

Liquid Crystal Sheet

(Heat Sensitive- Changes color)

Defect detected by differential heat diffusion into part

Electronic Thermography - Principle

of Operation
Infrared
Camera
Part
Lamp
Hot Air
Gun

Hot
Good Area
Cold

Water in
Honeycomb

Defect detected by differential heat diffusion into part

Liquid Crystal and Electronic

Thermography
Advantages

Disadvantages

Not effective for panels with

metal skins
Liquid crystal method
requires intimate contact

Real time imaging

Non contact (electronic)
Remote inspection
Low non-recurring costs

Defect Types: Water in honeycomb structure

Liquid Crystal and Electronic

Thermography

Liquid Crystal Method

Electronic Method

Liquid Crystal and Electronic

Thermography

Liquid Crystal
Thermography

Electronic
Thermography

Radiography

Pulsed Thermography -Principle

of Operation
HEAT IMPULSE FROM PHOTGRAPHIC FLASHLAMPS
> 1 MEGAWATT OF POWER

INFRARED
CAMERA
SHROUD

Process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

HEAT DIFFUSES INTO STRUCTURE

DEFECTS BLOCK HEAT FLOW
Data Acquisition
CAUSE SURFACE HOT SPOTS
Image Processing
DETECTED WITH THE INFRARED CAMERA
PROCESSED TO INCREASE SENSITIVITY

Pulsed Thermography
Advantages

Disadvantages

Rapid, wide area technique

Real time imaging, Noncontact, remote inspection
Versatile - New applications
being approved and
developed

High equipment cost

Application base still limited

Defect Types: Moisture in composites, metal skin to metal doubler

disbonds

Pulsed Thermography

Pulsed Thermography
Metal to metal disbond in 737 skin
Part

Pulsed Thermography Image

Ultrasonic Thermography Principle of Operation

Ultrasonic Excitation Source - 20 kHz
400 Watt
Infrared Camera

Crack

Differential motion across crack

face produces friction
Single point excitation covers
large inspection area
Real Time / Wide area inspection

Cracks

Disbond

Decreased stiffness at in-plane

defect sites cause greater localized
bending above defects
Heat from: Acoustic\Hysteresis
damping

Disbonds/Delaminations

Lateral heat flow in conductive materials require image processing for defect detection

Ultrasonic Thermography
Advantages

Disadvantages

Rapid, wide area technique

Real time imaging
Versatile - New applications
being approved and
developed
Allows simultaneous
detection of multiple defect
types

High equipment cost

Application base still limited

Defect Types: Cracks, Corrosion and Disbonds

Ultrasonic Thermography
Pneumatic Press

IR Camera

Ultrasonic
Horn
UT Welder
Power Supply

ThermoSonix System
for Laboratory Testing

Ultrasonic Thermography
Images of Defect

Lightning Strike
Graphite Composite
Disbonded Doubler
Fuselage Skin
Broken Fibers
Graphite Laminate

Shearography Principle of
Operation
Process
Pre-stress image taken
Stress applied (heat, vacuum , pressure)
Stress image taken
Image difference (pre-stress stress) produces shearogram

Defects cause surface

Displacement under stress

Shearing Optics

Laser interferometry technique

Part

Shearography
Advantages

Disadvantages

Rapid, wide area

technique locates and
sizes defects
Real time imaging
Non-contact

High equipment cost

Application base still
limited

Defect Types: Metal skin to metal doubler disbonds, moisture in

composites

Shearography

Shearography
Image of Defect

Shearography of disbond

Ultrasonics Principle of
Operation
Ultrasonic inspection involves sending high frequency sound waves
into parts of structures to interact with internal discontinuities or part
features
Typical frequency range for ultrasonics is between 500,000 Hertz
(500Khz) to 20,000,000 Hertz (20Mhz)
Bondtest methods may use sound down into audible frequencies
Ultrasonic systems typically use the following components
Instrument: Generates and receives the electronic pulse to from the
transducer and analyzes and displays signal
Transducer: induces sound waves into the part and/or listens for
returning sound
Couplant: provides for transfer of sound to & from part
Reference Standard: Provides calibration of test parameters

Ultrasonic Methods
Three primary methods
Pulse echo
Thru transmission
Bond testers

Pulse Echo Ultrasonics

Principle of Operation

An ultrasonic beam is
transmitted in a part
and is reflected from a
flaw or the back
surface and returned to
the transducer

Pulse Echo Ultrasonics

Advantages

Disadvantages

Single sided inspection

May be difficult to resolve

defects near surface defects
May be ineffective with
porosity
May not be sensitive to off
angle defects
May not be effective with
sandwich structures.

Identifies defect depth

relative size of defect
Reasonably high resolution
depending on equipment
Sensitive to a wide range of
foreign materials

Defect Types: Delaminations, foreign material, porosity (loss of

back)

Pulse Echo Ultrasonics

Automated Pulse Echo Scanner for 777 empennage skins

Through Transmission Ultrasonics

Principle of Operation
Uses two transducers, one to transmit the sound beam and the other to
receive it
Through-transmission can be performed using the contact or
immersion inspection method

Immersion through transmission

Contact through-transmission

Through Transmission Ultrasonics

Advantages

Disadvantages

Complete part inspection

with single scan
Large dynamic range
available
Relatively fast inspection
Irregular part contours

Requires access to both sides

of part
Does not identify defect type
or depth
Not as sensitive to foreign
materials as other methods

Defect Types: Delaminations and voids, porosity (equipment

dependant) foreign materials (equipment dependant)

Through Transmission Ultrasonics

Automated Thru-transmission Ultrasonic Scanner for 737 Engine Cowls

Through Transmission Ultrasonics

Through Transmission Scan Image

Bondtesters
Bondtesters operate in the acoustic- m
echanical mode and
are used for single- sided bond inspections
Bondtesters are classified by their operating frequency
High frequency (100 - 500 kHz)
Ultrasonic resonant transducer

Low frequency (7 - 80 kHz)

Mechanical impedance
Eddy Sonic
Velocimetric methods

Audible
Tap test (resonance)

Resonant Transducer Bondtesters

Principle of Operation

Resonant transducer

Resonant Transducer Bondtesters

Advantages

Disadvantages

Single sided inspection

Limited defect types

Limited sizing
capability

Inspect an area of a part

at one time
Fast data acquisition

Defect Types: Delaminations

Resonant Transducer Bondtesters

Velocimetric Bondtesters Principle

of Operation
Velocimetric bondtesters measure stiffness changes
of the structure through ultrasonic mechanical
vibrations. The transducer produces a flexural
(bending) wave mode

Velocimetric Bondtesters
Advantages

Disadvantages

Single sided inspection

Limited defect types

Poor sizing accuracy

Inspect an area of a part

at one time
Fast data acquisition

Defect Types: Skin to core disbonds, interply delaminations

Velocimetric Bondtesters

Velocimetric Bondtester

Tap Testers Principle of Operation

Tap testing is a process of evaluating a structure by lightly tapping
(structure vibrated) with a metallic disk, rod, or an automatic tap
tester instrument. The taping excites structural resonances that will
vary with how the energy is transferred into the part.
Aluminum
head
Adhesive

Adhesive

Stem
(piano wire)

Handle (aluminum)

Tap Testers
Advantages

Disadvantages

Low Cost
Relatively simple to use

Somewhat unreliable
Limited to defects 3 to 4
plies deep
Limited to defects larger
than 1 inch diameter
Results affected by
environmental noise
Results affected by hearing
ability of inspector

Defect Types: Skin to core disbonds, interply delaminations

Tap Testers

Automated Tap Test Instrument

Other NDT Methods Available

Acoustic Emission Testing

Computed Tomography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Neutron Radiography
Positron Emission Tomography
Compton Backscatter
Embedded sensors
DiffractoSite

NDT Summary
Method Usage Matrix
NDT Method
Ultrasonics
Pulse Echo
Ultrasonics
Through Transmisson
Ultrasonics
Bondtesters

Composite Laminate
Delaminations Porosity Foreign
Material

Shearography
Key






Radiography
Thermography

Honeycomb Structure
Delaminations Porosity Foreign Crushed
Material
Core




Works well
May be used under certain conditions






Entrapped
Moisture

NDT Summary
Current NDT technology adequate for composite
inspection
New emerging NDT techniques show additional
promise
NDI a valuable tool to detect & characterize
composite defects in all stages of product lifecycle
Trained inspectors are required for successful
inspection