ME 50400 / ECE 59500

Automotive Control
Lecture Notes: 2

Instructor
Sohel Anwar, Ph.D., P.E.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

IUPUI

Recap from Lecture 1

Background on Automotive Control

Importance of Automotive Control
Examples of Automotive Control Systems
Drive-By-Wire System Overview
Benefits of Automotive Control Systems

THERMODYNAMICS BASICS
To understand how an engine converts the thermal
energy into mechanical energy in a quantitative way, it
is necessary to review the fundamentals of
thermodynamics.
First law of thermodynamics essentially states the
law of conservation of energy:
dq = du + dw
dq = change in thermal energy in a control volume,
positive when thermal energy is added to it
du = change in the internal energy, positive when the
internal energy increase inside the control volume
dw = change in mechanical work on the control
volume, negative when it is worked on
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Thermodynamics Basics

Consider an engine
cylinder, the air is
compressed by the piston,
fuel is injected, a spark
(SI) initiates combustion,
pressure rises pressing
the piston outward
creating mechanical
energy. All of these events
can be described by
thermodynamic equations.

Thermodynamics Basics
The work done by the piston can be expressed by one
of the following:

Thermodynamics Basics
Review the definitions of Enthalpy and Specific Heat
Constant (pages 6-9 of the textbook).
Note that:
h = u + PV where h is enthalpy
R = cp cv where R is universal gas constant
k = cp / cv where k is adiabatic exponent
The ideal gas law states:
PV = mR
Where
m = mass of the gas, kg
R = 287.4 m2/(s2K)
P = pressure in N/m2
V = volume in m3
= gas temperature in K
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State Change of Ideal Gas

1. Isothermal change Gas temperature remains
constant
2. Isobaric change Gas pressure remains constant
3. Isochoric change Gas volume remains constant
4. Isentropic or Adiabatic change Gas thermal energy
remains constant
Isothermal change:

Ideal Gas State Change

Isobaric change: Pressure P = const.

Ideal Gas State Change

Isochoric change: Volume V = const.

Ideal Gas State Change

Isentropic Change: q = constant

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Thermodynamic Cycles
The operation of engines can be described by an
appropriate thermodynamic cycle for the purpose of
analysis.
Thermodynamic cycles also give the basis for ideal
efficiency of an engine, i.e. what is upper limit of energy
conversion?
While most real processes are not reversible from a
thermodynamic sense, these cycles assume that the
processes or the state changes are reversible.
A reversible adiabatic process is known as insentropic
process where entropy remains constant. Entropy is
defined as: dS = dq/
11

The Carnot Cycle

An ideal engine will run on a Carnot cycle:

in

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Carnot Cycle
Since heat energy due to combustion enters the
cylinder near point 1, the only heat input in the cycle is
assumed to be during process 1-2.
Also the work input during isentropic compression (41) and isentropic expansion (2-3) are identical and
cancel each other.

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Engine Basics: Thermodynamic Cycle

Two fundamental types of IC engines: 1) Four Stroke Cycle,
and 2) Two Stroke Cycle. Four stroke cycle engines are
most common. Two stroke cycle engines are principally
used in marine applications.
Four stroke engine runs on a thermodynamic cycle that has
the following piston strokes: air-fuel intake, compression,
combustion/expansion, and exhaust. Two stroke engines
combine intake and expansion strokes into one and
compression and exhaust strokes into one.
Based on ignition, engines are classified as: 1) Spark Ignited
(SI) or 2) compression ignited (CI). SI engines operate on
low compression ratio whereas CI engines operate on
higher compression ratio which cause self-ignition.
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Spark-ignited (SI) Engines

First introduced by Nikolaus Otto in 1862.
The P-V diagram has four stages: compression,
combustion (constant volume), expansion, and exhaust
(constant volume).
Compression ratio is given by:

V1

V2

The expansion and compression processes are

considered isentropic in an Otto cycle.
15

p-V Diagram for SI Engines

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Thermal Efficiency of an SI Engine

The thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the
ratio of all kinetic energies to the total thermal energy
(q2,3) of combustion in one cycle.
To derive the expression of thermal efficiency th in
terms of pressure, volume, temperature, we need to
consider all four stages of an Otto cycle.
Work done in process 1-2: Isentropic compression

dq net _ heat _ change 0

dq du dw change _ in _ nternal _ energy work _ done 0
dw du mcv d
2

w1 2 mcv d mcv ( 2 1 )
1

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Thermal Efficiency of Otto Cycle

The combustion of the gas inside the cylinder causes
the pressure to rise at constant volume (process 2-3).

dV net _ volume _ change 0

dq 0
dw pdV 0
w23

V3

pdV 0

V2

dq du dw du mcv d
3

q23 mcv d mcv ( 3 2 )

2

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Thermal Efficiency of Otto Cycle

Following combustion and pressure rise, the piston
moves resulting in expansion of the gas (process 3-4).
Assuming isentropic expansion (dq=0), we obtain:

dq 0
dq du dw 0
dw du mcv d
4

w3 4 mcv d mcv ( 4 3 )
3

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Thermal Efficiency of Otto Cycle

The last stage of the cycle is assumed to be a
constant volume process when heat is lost via exhaust
gas exiting the cylinder and new air-fuel mixture
entering the cylinder (process 4-1):

dV net _ volume _ change 0

dq 0
dw pdV 0
w41

V1

pdV 0

V4

dq du dw du mcv d
1

q41 mcv d mcv (1 4 )

4

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Thermal Efficiency of Otto Cycle

Now the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is given
by:

w1 2 w23 w3 4 w41
th
q2 3
mcv ( 2 1 ) 0 mcv ( 4 3 ) 0

mcv ( 3 2 )
mcv ( 3 2 ) mcv ( 4 1 )

mcv ( 3 2 )
( 4 1 )
1
( 3 2 )
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Thermal Efficiency of Otto Cycle

( 4 1 )
th 1
( 3 2 )
Now

4V1k 1 3V2k 1
1V1k 1 2V2k 1
Therefore
( 4 1 )V

k 1
1

( 3 2 )V

( 4 1 ) V2

( 3 2 ) V1
22

k 1
2

k 1

Thermal Efficiency of Otto Cycle

Utilizing the ideal gas law for an isentropic process,
we can obtain the following relationship:

4 V3

3 V4

k 1

th 1
23

k 1

k 1

Observations

Higher value of the compression ratio will result in

higher thermal efficiency.

For a compression ratio of 11 and adiabatic constant

k = 1.4, the ideal thermal efficiency of an Otto cycle is
0.617.

th 1

k 1

1
1 1.4 1 0.617
11

Is there a limit on the compression ratio?

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Diesel Engines
Rudolf Diesel developed the first compression ignition
(CI) engine in 1893-1897.
The CI engine (widely known as Diesel Engine) also
has two fundamental types: Four Stroke Cycle and Two
Stroke Cycle.
It operates on higher compression ratio than SI engines.
Combustion takes place due to high temperature
developed in the compression stroke, which cause gas
expansion at nearly constant pressure. Constant
pressure is maintained by controlling the fuel injection in
the chamber.
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p-V Diagram for a CI Engine

26

Diesel Engines
The constant pressure combustion process becomes
longer if more fuel is injected into the combustion
chamber.
Injection ratio or load is defined as the ratio of the
volume at the end of combustion to the volume at the
beginning of combustion.

V3 3

V2 2
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Thermal Efficiency of a Diesel Engine

The four stages of a diesel cycle are: isentropic
compression, isobaric combustions, isentropic
expansion, and isochoric heat loss.
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression dq=0:

dq net _ heat _ change 0

dq du dw change _ in _ nternal _ energy work _ done 0
dw du mcv d
2

w1 2 mcv d mcv ( 2 1 )
1

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Thermal Efficiency of a Diesel Engine

The combustion of the gas inside the cylinder causes
the gas to expand at constant pressure (process 2-3).

dp 0
dq mc p d
3

q23 mc p d mc p ( 3 2 )
2

dw pdV mRd
3

w23 mR d mR( 3 2 )
2

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Thermal Efficiency of a Diesel Engine

Following combustion, the piston moves resulting in
expansion of the gas (process 3-4). Assuming
isentropic expansion (dq=0), we obtain:

dq 0
dq du dw 0
dw du mcv d
4

w3 4 mcv d mcv ( 4 3 )
3

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Thermal Efficiency of a Diesel Engine

The last stage of the cycle is assumed to be a
constant volume process when heat is lost via exhaust
gas exiting the cylinder and new air-fuel mixture
entering the cylinder (process 4-1):

dV net _ volume _ change 0

dq 0 dw pdV 0
w4 1

V1

pdV 0

V4

dq du dw du mcv d
1

q4 1 mcv d mcv (1 4 )
4

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Thermal Efficiency of a Diesel Engine

Now the thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle is given
by:

w1 2 w23 w3 4 w41
th
q2 3

mcv ( 2 1 ) m(c p cv )( 3 2 ) mcv ( 4 3 ) 0

mc p ( 3 2 )

4
( 1)
1 1 1
1
k 2 ( 3 1)
2
[ R (c p cv )];[k

cp
cv

]
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Thermal Efficiency of a Diesel Engine

After simplification using the law of gases, the following
efficiency equation is obtained:
4 p4 p4 p2 V3

1 p1 p3 p1 V4
V3 4

V4 3

1
k 1

4 4

1 3

V1 2

V2 1

k
k 1

2

1

k
k 1

V1
[ pV k C ]
V2

1
k 1

4
1

k
k 1

2

3

4 2
k
1 3

1 1 k 1
th 1 k 1
k 1
33

k
k 1

Example Problem
Find the ideal thermodynamic (thermal) efficiency of a
diesel engine, if the compression ratio for the engine is
20 and the injection ratio is 2. Assume the adiabetic gas
constant k = 1.4.
Solution:

1 1 1
th 1 k 1
k 1
k

1
1 2 1
0.647
1 1.4 1
20
1.4 2 1
1 .4

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Observations

Efficiency of a diesel engine is not only dependent of

compression ratio but also, on the injection ratio or load.
The diesel efficiency decreases with increase in load .

At high load, a diesel engine has a lower efficiency

than an Otto engine at the same compression ratio.

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Thermal Efficiency of a Diesel Engine

36

Comparison of Different Engines

SI engines have lower compression ratio to keep the

maximum pressure below allowable values since
isochoric combustion can generate high pressures.

CI engines are on the other hand can work at high

compression ratios since the combustion is isobaric.

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Comparison of Different Engines

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Supplemental Material

Please review example on engine efficiency posted

on OnCourse under Supplemental Materials.

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