Jb502 - Chapter 2

Diploma in Mechanical Engineering (Material)
JB502 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

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Chapter
Two (2)
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Week : Two-Three (2-3)

CLO 1 : Explain the principle of material testing
and mechanical properties for engineering
material.
CLO 2 : Formulate the testing data and result
acquired for various types of engineering
material.
CLO 3 : Differentiate types of defects and the
factors that influences its.
2.1 Understand tensile test

2.2 Show the standard specimen/specification for
this test.
2.3 Understand stress -strain & load-elongation
graph for several different types of material.
2.4 State the important data acquired from load-elongation
& stress-strain graph for test & its significance.
2.5 List the types of fracture for several types of

material.
2.6 State the standard used for tensile test.
Testing principle
Types of fracture
Standard specimen / specification

Standard for tensile test
Stress-strain & load-elongation graph
Important data from - & p-l graph
TENSILE TEST
DEFINITION
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science test
in which a sample is subjected to uni-axial tension until failure.
The results from the test are commonly used to select a material for an application, for
quality control, and to predict how a material will react under other types of forces.
Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength,
maximum elongation and reduction in area.
From these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.
Testing principle
Types of fracture

PRINCIPLE
The test consists of straining a test piece, by
tensile force, generally to fracture, and
recording the relationship between force and
extension, for the purpose of determining
one or more of the tensile properties (yield
strength, proof strength, tensile strength,
elongation, reduction of area).
The tensile test measures the resistance of
a material to a static or slowly applied
tension force, i.e. the type of loading in
which the two sections of material on either
side of a plane tend to be pulled apart or
elongated.
A test setup is shown in figure

below:
Schematic diagram for

tensile test.
Testing principle
Types of fracture

Testing principle
Types of fracture

A typical specimen has a particular diameter and gauge length, is placed in the testing
machine and force (load) is applied.
A strain gage or extensometer is used to measure the amount that the specimen
stretches between the gage marks when the force is applied.
The result of a tensile test are shown in table and figure below as load versus gage
length.
The result of a tensile test result
The load versus gage length.
Testing principle
Types of fracture

Testing principle
Types of fracture

STANDARD SPECIMEN (TEST-PIECE)

Standard Specimen
A tensile test consists of slowly pulling a sample of material with a tensile load until it breaks.
The test specimen used may have either a circular, square or a rectangular cross section.
The end of tensile specimens are usually enlarged to provide extra area for gripping and to
avoid having the sample break where it is being gripped.
Various Tensile Test Specimens
Testing principle
Types of fracture

10
Testing principle
Types of fracture

The are various types of test-piece holder available.

The test piece should generally be made as per standard dimension.
The test pieces should be held by suitable means, for example, wedges, screwed
holder, shouldered holders, etc., at most convenient.
11
Testing principle
Types of fracture

There are many variations of this test to accommodate the widely differing character of
materials such as metals, elastomers, plastics and glasses.
The tensile test on a metal test piece (BS18:1987) is described below:
12
Testing principle
Types of fracture

GAUGE LENGTH AND PARALLEL LENGTH

Gauge length (Lo) is the length over which the elongation of the specimen is
measured.
The minimum parallel length (Lc) is the minimum length over which the specimen
must maintain a constant cross-sectional area before the test load is applied.
The lengths Lo, Lc, and L1 and the cross-sectional area (A) are all specified in BS 18.
13
Testing principle
Types of fracture

Cylindrical test specimen are proportional so that the gauge length Lo and the crosssectional area A maintain a constant relationship.
Therefore such specimens are called proportional test pieces.
The relationship is given by the expression:
Therefore a specimen 5 mm diameter will have a gauge length 25mm

(Lo = 5d =5 x 5mm = 25mm).
The minimum parallel length (Lc) is the minimum length is given by the expression:
14
Testing principle
Types of fracture

ACTIVITY 1:
Determine the original gauge length (Lo) and the minimum parallel length (Lc)
for metals test piece if the diameter of sample is 10 mm.
SOLUTION:
Lo = 5do
= 5(10) mm
= 50 mm
Lc = 5.5do
= 5.5(10) mm
= 55 mm
15
Testing principle
Types of fracture

STRESS VERSUS STRAIN & LOAD VERSUS EXTENSION

GRAPH FOR SEVERAL DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATERIAL
LOAD EXTENSION CURVE
Figure below shows the results get from a typical tensile test on a piece of annealed lowcarbon steel.
The load applied to the specimen and the corresponding extension can be plotted in the form
of a graph, as shown in figure below:
16
Testing principle
Types of fracture

From A to B the extension is proportional to the

applied load. Also, if the applied load is removed the
specimen returns to its original length. Under these
relatively lightly loaded conditions the material is
showing ELASTIC properties.
From B to C it can be seen from the graph that he
metal suddenly extends with no increase in load. If
the load is removed at this point the metal will not
spring back to its original length and it is said to have
taken a PERMANENT SET. This is the YIELD POINT.
The YIELD STRESS is the stress at the yield point;
that is, the load at B divided by the original crosssection area of the specimen. Usually, a designer
works at 50 per cent of this figure to allow for a
FACTOR OF SAFETY.
From C to D extension is no longer proportional to the
load, and if the load is removed little or no spring back
will occur. Under this relatively greater loads the
material is showing PLASTIC properties.
17
Testing principle
Types of fracture

The point D is referred to as the ULTIMATE TENSILE

STRENGTH when referred to load-extension graphs
or ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS (UTS) when
referred to the stress-strain graphs. This ultimate
tensile stress is calculated by dividing the load at D by
the original cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Although a useful figure for comparison the relative
strengths of materials, it has a little practical value
since engineering equipment is not usually operated
so near to the breaking point.
From D to E the specimen appears to be stretching
under reduced load conditions. In fact the specimen is
thinning out (necking) so that the LOAD PER UNIT
AREA, or stress is actually increasing. The specimen
finally work hardens to such an extent that it breaks at
E.
In practice, values of load and extension are of limited
use since they apply only to one particular size of
specimen and it is more usual to plot the stress-strain
curve.
18
Testing principle
Types of fracture

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
Figure below shows the stress-strain curve for the low
carbon steel.
Upto the point M Hookes law holds good and this
point is known as LIMIT OF PROPORTIONALITY.
Beyond the point M Hookes law is not obeyed
although the material remains elastic i.e., strain
completely disappears after the removal of load.
At the point N elastic limit is reached. If the material is
loaded or stress upto this point the material will regain
its original shape on the removal of load.
Upto the point P strain increase more quickly than
stress and at this point the metal YIELDS. In the mild
steel yielding commences/start immediately and two
points P and Q, the upper and lower yield points
respectively are obtained. On further increasing the
load slightly, the strain increases rapidly till R when
neck is formed. When this point (R) is reached the
deformation or extension continues even with lesser
load and ultimately fracture follows.
19
Testing principle
Types of fracture

20
Testing principle
Types of fracture

21
Testing principle
Types of fracture

Stress-Strain Curve For Ductile Material And Brittle Material

A typical stress-strain curve for a ductile metal, such as aluminium or copper is shown in
figure below:
The initial linear portion of curve OA is the elastic region within which Hookes law obeyed.
Point A is the elastic limit, defined as the greatest stress that the metal can withstand
without experiencing a permanent strain when the load is removed.
The determination of the elastic limit is dependent on the sensitivity of the strain measuring
instrument.
For this reasons, it is often replaced by the proportional limit point A.
The proportional limit is the stress at which the stress-strain curve deviates form linearity.
The slope of the stress-strain curve in this region is called the modulus of elasticity.
22
Testing principle
Types of fracture

For engineering purposes the limit of usable elastic behaviour is described by the yield
strength, point B.
The yield strength is defined as the stress which will produce a small amount of permanent
deformation, generally s strain, equal to 0.01 or 0.02% of the gauge length of the tensile
specimen.
In figure above, this permanent strain, or offset, is OC.
Plastic deformation begins when the elastic limit is exceeded.
As the plastic deformation of the specimen increase, the metal becomes stronger.
Higher and higher load is required as the strain increase.
Finally, the load reaches a maximum value, as given by the point M.
The maximum load divided by the original cross-section area of the specimen is called the
ultimate tensile strength.
For a ductile metal, the diameter of the specimen begins to increase rapidly beyond
maximum load, so that the load required to continue deformation drops off until the
specimen fracture at point F.
23
Testing principle
Types of fracture

The general behaviour of material under load can be classified as ductile or brittle depending
upon whether or not the material exhibits the ability to undergo plastic deformation.
The tensile stress-strain curve for brittle material is shown in figure below:
A completely brittle material would fracture almost at the elastic limit (a), while a brittle metal,
such as white cast iron, shows a little plasticity before fracture (b).
Figure below shows stress-strain curves for different metals / alloys.
24
Testing principle
Types of fracture

25
Testing principle
Types of fracture

26
Testing principle
Types of fracture

ACTIVITY 2:
Figure show the stress-strain curve
for an annealed low carbon steel.
Indicate the following on the
curve:
a) Elastic range
b) Plastic range
c) Proportionality limit
d) Elastic limit
e) Upper yield point
f) Lower yield point
g) Tensile strength
h) Fracture strength
27
Testing principle
Types of fracture

=
TENSILE TEST RESULTS (TENSILE PROPERTIES)
A. TENSILE STRENGTH (ULTIMATE OR MAXIMUM STRENGTH)

It is calculated by dividing the maximum load carried by the specimen during a tension
test by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Tensile strength is widely used design factor, although there is more justification for yield
strength.
load-extension curve
stress-strain curve
P
Pmax
max
maksimumload applied
Tensile strength =
original cross sec tional area
P
max
So
Tensile strength = max stress on the curve
max
28
Testing principle
Types of fracture

B. PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
It is the maximum stress at which stress remain directly proportional to strain.
The proportional limit is determined from the stress-strain curve by drawing straight
line tangent at the origin and noting the first deviation of the plot from the line.
The proportional limit is great dependence upon the precision available for its
determination.
stress-strain curve
Pa
L
load at proportional lim it
Strength at proportional limit =
Stress at proportional limit = stress on the proportional limit on curve
Pa
So
29
Testing principle
Types of fracture

30
Testing principle
Types of fracture

C. ELASTIC LIMIT
The elastic limit is the maximum stress which the material can withstand without
causing permanent deformation which remains after removal of stress.
stress-strain curve
Pa
a'
L
Strength at elastic limit =
load at elastic lim it

Stress at elastic limit = stress on the elastic limit on curve
a'
Pa'
So
31
Testing principle
Types of fracture

D. YIELD STRENGTH
The stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting permanent set.

The yield strength is the load corresponding to a small specified plastic strain divided by the
original cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Upper yield strength : The value of stress at the moment when the first decrease in first at
yield is observed.
Lower yield strength : the lowest value of stress during plastic yielding, ignoring any
transient effects.
32
Testing principle
Types of fracture

stress-strain curve
y1
y1
y2
y2
Upper yield strength, ReH =
load at upper yield po int, Py1

Cross sec tional area, So
Py1
So
load at lower yield po int, Py 2

lLwer yield strength, ReL =
Cross sec tional area, So
Upper yield strength, ReH = Stress at y1
Lower yield strength, ReL = stress ay y2
Py 2
So
33
Testing principle
Types of fracture

=
E. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E
=
The slope of the initial portion of the stress-strain curve is the modulus of elasticity.
The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of the material.
The greater the modulus, the smaller the elastic strain resulting from the application of
a given stress.
stress-strain curve
l
E = slope of curve x
gauge length
= Stress
P L
x
l S o
Strain
34
Testing principle
Types of fracture

F. PROOF STRESS
For the material s which do not exhibit a well defined yield phenomenon or yield point,
such as cold-worked and heat-treated steels, the yield stress may be replaced by the
word proof-stress.
The proof stress is defined as the stress that produces a specified amount of plastic
strain, such as 0.1 or 0.2%.
35
Testing principle
Types of fracture

stress-strain curve
P
P
Pp
Rpx%
E
X% proof stress, Rpx% =
x% plastic strain
x% extension of gauge length

X% extension of gauge length =
x
x gauge length
100
X% plastic strain =
x
100
x% proof strength, Pp
original cross sec tional area, So
X% proof stress, = Rpx%
36
Testing principle
Types of fracture

F. RUPTURE STRENGTH
It is determined by dividing the load at the time fracture by the original cross-sectional
area.
stress-strain curve
Prupture
rupture
L
Prupture =
load at rupture
rupture
= Stress at rupture point
37
Testing principle
Types of fracture

G. ELONGATION
Elongation of a specimen after fracture may be determined by placing the parts of the
broken specimen closely together and holding them in place by a vice.
The distance between gauge marks may be measured by means of dividers.
Percentage elongation
Final length originalle ngth

x100%
original length
Elongation has considerable engineering significance because it indicates ductility
38
Testing principle
Types of fracture

H. REDUCTION OF AREA
After the metal has fractured the percentage reduction in area is calculated by
measuring the test piece diameter at the point of fracture, calculating the crosssectional area at this point, and expressing it as a percentage of a original area.
Percentage reduction area
original area area at fracture

x100%
original area
39
Testing principle
Types of fracture

ACTIVITY 3
A 10 mm x 10 mm square tensile bar obtained from a nickel super-alloy has a 40 mm
gauge length. The results of the tensile test are as follows:
Load (N)
Gauge length (mm)
40.00
43,100
40.10
86,200
40.20
102,000
40.40
104,800
40.80
109,600
41.60
113,800
42.40
121,300
44.00
126,900
46.00
127,600
48.00
113,800 (fracture)
50.20
From the stress-strain curve, calculate:

a. The tensile strength in megapascals.
b. The 0.2% offset yields strength in megapascals
c. The modulus of elasticity in gigapascals
d. The approximate % elongation.
40
Testing principle
Types of fracture

SOLUTION:
Load
(N)
Gauge
length (mm)
l
(mm)
Ao
(mm)
(N/mm)
(mm/mm)
40
100
(mm/mm)
(x10)
0
43,100
40.1
0.1
100
431
0.0025
2.5
86,200
40.2
0.2
100
862
0.0050
102,000
40.4
0.4
100
1020
0.0100
10
104,800
40.8
0.8
100
1048
0.0200
20
109,600
41.6
1.6
100
1096
0.0400
40
113,800
42.4
2.4
100
1138
0.0600
60
121,300
44
100
1213
0.1000
100
126,900
46
100
1269
0.1500
150
127,600
48
100
1276
0.2000
200
113,800
50.2
10.2
100
1138
0.2550
255
41
Testing principle
Types of fracture

42
Testing principle
Types of fracture

SOLUTION:
a. The tensile strength in magepascals.
From stress-strain curve,
UTS = 1290 N/mm
= 1290 x 106 N/m
= 1290 MPa
b. The 0.2% offset yields strength (proof stress) in megapascals
i. 0.2% plastic strain = 0.2 / 100
= 0.002
= 2 x 10
ii. From stress-strain curve,
0.2% proof stress
= 970 N/mm
= 970 x 106 N/m
= 970 MPa
43
Testing principle
Types of fracture

c. The modulus of elasticity (E) in gigapascals

From stress-strain curve,
E
= 862 N/mm / 5 x 10
= 172400 N/mm
= 172400 x 106 N/m
= 172400 MPa
= 172.4 GPa
Lo = 40 mm, Lf = 50.2 mm
% elongation = [(50.2 - 40) / (40)] x 100%
= (10.2 / 40) x 100%
= 25.5%
44
Testing principle
Types of fracture

ACTITIVY 4:
A 10 mm x 10 mm square tensile bar obtained from a nickel super-alloy has a 40 mm
gauge length. The results of the tensile test are as follows:
Load (N)
Gauge length (mm)
40.00
43,100
40.10
86,200
40.20
102,000
40.40
104,800
40.80
109,600
41.60
113,800
42.40
121,300
44.00
126,900
46.00
127,600
48.00
113,800 (fracture)
50.20
From the load-extension curve, calculate:

a. The tensile strength in magepascals.
b. The 0.2% offset yields strength in megapascals
c. The modulus of elasticity in gigapascals
45
Testing principle
Types of fracture

THE INTERPRETATION OF TENSILE TEST RESULTS

The interpretation of tensile test data requires skill borne out of experience, the
temperature at which the test is carried out and also the rate which the specimen is
strained.
The tensile modulus and tensile strength decrease as the temperature rises for most
metals and plastics, whereas the ductility increase as the temperature rises.
Table below shows a typical stress-strain curve for:
a) Annealed mild steel
b) Grey cast iron
c) Wrought light alloy
46
Testing principle
Types of fracture

a) Annealed mild steel

The material is ductile since
there is long elastic range.
The material is fairly rigid
since the slope of the initial
elastic range is steep.
The limit of proportionality
(elastic limit) occurs at about
230 MPa.
The upper yield point occurs
at about 260 MPa.
The lower yield point occurs
at about 230 MPa.
The ultimate tensile stress
(UTS) occurs at about 400
MPa.
b) Grey cast iron

The material is brittle since there
is little plastic deformation before it
fractures.
Again the material is fairly rigid
since the slope of the initial elastic
range is steep.
It is difficult to determine the point
at which the limit of proportionality
occurs, but it is approximately
200MPa.
The UTS is the same as the
breaking stress for this sample.
This indicates negligible reduction
in cross-section (necking) and
minimal ductility and malleability. It
occurs at approximately 250 MPa.
c) Wrought light alloy

The material has a high level
of ductility since it shows a
long plastic range.
The material is much less rigid
than either (a) or (b) since the
slope of the initial plastic
range is much less steep
when plotted to the same
scale.
The limit of proportionality is
almost impossible to
determine, so the proof stress
will be specified instead. For
this sample a 0.2% proof
stress is approximately 500
MPa.
47
Testing principle
Types of fracture

48
Testing principle
Types of fracture

ACTIVITY 5:
Figure shows the stress-strain graph for four materials. Which of the materials is:
a) The most ductile?
b) The most brittle?
c) The strongest?
d) The stiffest?
49
Testing principle
Types of fracture

FRACTURE IN METALS
DEFINITION
Fracture is the breaking of a metal to yield/result an irregular
surface.
Fracture is the separation of a solid under stress into 2 or more
parts.
In general metal fractures can be classified as ductile or brittle.
DUCTILE FRACTURE
In ductile fracture, there occurs an appreciable/large plastic deformation prior to
failure and the fractured surface give cup and cone appearance (after extensive
plastic deformation).
Cup and cone fracture

50
Testing principle
Types of fracture

The fracture is found to start only after a necked portion shows up on the test piece.
The first formed micro-cracks and cavities grow larger and finally join together to form a
crack in the centre of the necked portion.
The cavity then spreads in a direction inclined (condong) at 45o to the tensile axis.
The size of the cup depends on the relative shear and cleavage (belahan) strength values.
Metal with a high yield strength gives a smaller cup.
The fracture faces are irregular and fibrous (bergentian) in appearance.
Stages in the formation of a cup and cone ductile fracture.

51
Testing principle
Types of fracture

BRITTLE FRACTURE
In brittle fractures, failure of the metal occurs when the fracture crack propagates
(menyebar) through the cross-section without an appreciable plastic deformation (very
little plastic deformation).
The fracture crack may start form any location where there are stress raisers.
The surface condition of the metal can be critical and makings on it can initiate cracks.
Such a fracture is more likely to occur in metal with poor plasticity and low
temperatures.
Brittle fracture
52
Testing principle
Types of fracture

COMPARISON BETWEEN DUCTILE FRACTURE AND BRITTLE FRACTURE
DUCTILE FRACTURE
Ductile fracture is accompanied with large plastic deformation.
Slow rate of crack propagation.
Ductile fracture is characterised by the formation of cup and cone.
Surface obtained at the fracture is shining.
Failure is on account of shear stress developed at 45o .
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Brittle fracture is one in which the movement of the crack involves
very little plastic deformation.
Rapid rate of crack propagation.
Brittle fracture is characterised by separation normal to tensile
stress.
Surface obtained at the fracture is dull accompanied with hills and
valleys.
Fracture is on account of direct stress.
53
Testing principle
Types of fracture

54
Testing principle
Types of fracture

STANDARD FOR TENSILE TEST

1) MS ISO 6892 : 2002 [Malaysia Standard, Metallic Material Tensile Testing At
Ambient Temperature (ISO 6892 : 1998, IDT)]
2) ASTM E 8M 91 [(Standard Test Methods For Tension Testing Of Metallic Materials
(Metric)]
3) BS 18 : 1987 [British Standard Method For Tensile Testing Of Metals (Including
Aerospace Materials)]
55

Jb502 - Chapter 2

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Diploma in Mechanical Engineering (Material)

JB502 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

peneraju ilmu sejagat

Week : Two-Three (2-3)

peneraju ilmu sejagat

2.1 Understand tensile test

2.5 List the types of fracture for several types of

peneraju ilmu sejagat

Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

Important data from - & p-l graph

peneraju ilmu sejagat

Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

Important data from - & p-l graph

A test setup is shown in figure

Schematic diagram for

peneraju ilmu sejagat

Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

peneraju ilmu sejagat

Important data from - & p-l graph

Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

Important data from - & p-l graph

The result of a tensile test result

The load versus gage length.

peneraju ilmu sejagat

Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

peneraju ilmu sejagat

Important data from - & p-l graph

Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

Important data from - & p-l graph

STANDARD SPECIMEN (TEST-PIECE)

Various Tensile Test Specimens

peneraju ilmu sejagat

Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

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Important data from - & p-l graph

Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

Important data from - & p-l graph

The are various types of test-piece holder available.

peneraju ilmu sejagat

Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

Important data from - & p-l graph

peneraju ilmu sejagat

Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

Important data from - & p-l graph

GAUGE LENGTH AND PARALLEL LENGTH

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Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

Important data from - & p-l graph

Therefore a specimen 5 mm diameter will have a gauge length 25mm

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Standard specimen / specification

Stress-strain & load-elongation graph

Important data from - & p-l graph