Materials Science and Engineering A359 (2003) 1
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www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Observations of serration characteristics and acoustic emission during

serrated flow of an Al
Mg alloy
/

Justin M. Reed, Mark E. Walter *

Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
Received 13 June 2002; received in revised form 23 September 2002; accepted 30 September 2002

Abstract
Study of serrated flow is important for the production of metal alloy parts with smooth surfaces and for fundamental
understanding of microscale plastic deformation. In this experimental investigation of a rolled Al
/Mg alloy, serrated flow was
observed for the entire plastic flow region at three different strain rates. Strain and strain rate dependent serration amplitudes and
widths were quantified. In addition, the acoustic emission (AE) signature from the plastic flow region was analyzed in detail and was
related to the serrations in the macroscopic stress versus strain results. For all experiments, deformation bands on the surfaces of the
specimens were found to be consistent with Type B serrations. Video observations of the deformation bands were synchronized
with the AE, and the deformation bands were found to coincide with more persistent AE bursts and anomalies in the serrations.
# 2002 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Portevin-Le Chatlier; Serrated flow; 5000 series aluminum alloy; Acoustic emission

1. Introduction
Under certain circumstances, the stress
/strain response during the plastic flow of Al
/Mg alloys has
sharp, small-scale jumps in stress. The sharp jumps in
stress values are related to microstructural strain
localization. In this paper, inelastic deformation of this
type will be called serrated flow. In their review paper,
Robinson and Shaw [1] have identified the following
terms to be synonymous with serrated flow: the Portevin-Le Chatlier (PLC) effect, dynamic strain aging, and
jerky flow. Serrated flow has been the subject of many
investigations over the years. It is generally accepted
that clouds of solute atoms restrict dislocation motion
and are responsible for the strain rate dependency of
serrated flow [1]. In particular, solute atoms diffuse
towards dislocations that are pinned by forest obstacles.
Longer dislocation waiting times associated with lower
nominal strain rates allow for more solute diffusion. The
waiting times are therefore related to the amplitude of

* Corresponding author. Tel.: /1-614-292-6081; fax: /1-614-2923163.

E-mail address: walter.80@osu.edu (M.E. Walter).
0921-5093/02/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 1 - 5 0 9 3 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 7 2 9 - 3

the stress drop that occurs when dislocations break free.

Furthermore, serration amplitudes have also been
shown to depend on the density of mobile dislocations
[2].
During tensile yielding, in addition to manifestations
of serrated flow in the jerky macroscopic stress
/strain
curves, serrated flow also results in visible deformation
bands traversing the gage section of the specimen (e.g.
[3]). These deformation bands and the strain localization
associated with them have important implications for
the formability and the surface quality of products
produced through deformation processing. Although
serrated flow occurs in a wide variety of alloys
(aluminum, copper, steel, titanium, etc.), the prevalence
of serrated flow in aluminum alloys and the increasing
desire to use them in durable goods has led to particular
interest in aluminum alloys. Robinson [4] has written a
review paper that is focused exclusively on serrated flow
in aluminum-base alloys.
Comparing serrated flow characteristics across research programs is difficult because serrations are
heavily influenced by specimen source, preparation,
and configuration and by test conditions. For example,
there have been studies on the influences of rolling
reduction (e.g. [5]), strain rate (e.g. [6
/8]), test tempera-

J.M. Reed, M.E. Walter / Materials Science and Engineering A359 (2003) 1
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ture (e.g. [1,9
/11]), aging (e.g. [6]), and grain size (e.g.
[10,12
/14]) on serrated flow. Models have been developed to predict serration amplitude (e.g. [15,16]) and the
critical strains at which serrations start or end [2]. As has
been mentioned, serration amplitudes and critical
strains are dependent on the length of time that
dislocations are mobile or immobile, and therefore
models typically use empirical relations to account for
diffusion and dislocation motion. Other models, which
have incorporated evolution equations for dislocation
densities, indicate that the PLC effect is chaotic in
nature (e.g. [17]). The incorporation of a time delay in
the evolution equations has enabled prediction of
several experimentally observed results [18]. To prove
that PLC stress oscillations are chaotic in nature, auto
correlations, singular value decompositions, and Lyapunov spectrum analyses have been performed on
experimental data [19].
In general, researchers have relied on qualitative
descriptions to classify serrations as Type A, B, C, D,
or E (e.g. [1]). Different serration types result from
differences in microstructural strain localization and can
be identified from macroscopic stress
/strain curves.
Ambiguities arise from the fact that different types of
serrations can overlap and cancel each other [7]. More
recently, a laser scanning extensometer was used to
measure local strains along the whole specimen gage
length [20], and serration types were identified based on
deformation band propagation. Continuous propagation of a single band yields Type A serrations; discontinuous band propagation results in Type B
serrations; and nucleation of single bands at random
locations yields Type C serrations. The reader is referred
to existing literature for detailed descriptions of serration types (e.g. [1,7,20]).
Acoustic emission (AE) results from transient elastic
waves and can be monitored by piezo transducers
coupled to the specimen surface. It has been shown
that dislocation generation, multiplication, and motion
produce AE (e.g. [21,22]). Thus, there have been
numerous attempts to use AE to investigate serrated
flow [16,23
/27]. Unfortunately, the qualitative nature of
AE, the sensor type, sensor placement, surface coupling,
signal thresholding, and data presentation has led to a
perceived and/or actual lack of uniformity in results.
Some investigators have found that AE results only
from Type A serrations [26]; others show AE at every
serration peak [23]; and still other investigators indicate
that AE only occurs during deformation band initiation
and not during propagation [25]. Nonetheless, AE
provides a method for obtaining dislocation scale
information during serrated flow.
Much of the previous work on serrated flow has
focused on the effects of test conditions and material
composition and microstructure. In this work, the
serration characteristics are investigated for the entire

plastic flow region and for three different strain rates.

Strain and strain rate dependent serration amplitudes
and widths are determined. In addition, the AE signature from the plastic flow region is analyzed in detail.
Finally, results are linked to observations of deformation bands on the specimen surface.

2. Experiments
The 5083 aluminum alloy (4.45% magnesium, 0.65%
Manganese, 0.15% Chromium) used in this work was
obtained from Pechiney Rolled Products in Ravenswood, West Virginia. The material had been rolled into
1 mm thick sheet that was then punch cut into a dogbone shape. With CNC machining, gage sections were
machined to 6.9 cm long by 6.35 mm wide and grip-pin
holes were bored. Specimen surfaces were smoothed by
hand with 1000 grit sandpaper. Specimens were tested to
failure in uniaxial tension at room temperature using a
large Instron screw machine. Load measurements were
obtained using an Instron 1000 lb type D load cell, and
displacement was measured using a Schaevitz LVDT
mounted on the grip. The LVDT had a 19 mm range
and 2.3 mm mV 1 resolution. The displacement information from the LVDT was used to determine the
average strain in the specimen. Since the LVDT was
mounted on the grip, machine compliances were insignificant in the plastic region. All experiments were
displacement controlled at strain rates of 6.3 /105
s 1 (slow), 3.8 /104 s 1 (medium), or 1.0 /103 s 1
(fast). All strains reported in this work are nominal
strains and therefore are directly proportional to time.
A Vallen-Systeme AMSY4 AE workstation was used
for all data acquisition. Two parametric input channels
continuously recorded load and displacement signals at
5, 30, and 75 Hz for the slow, medium, and fast strain
rates, respectively. Two acoustic channels were used to
collect AE through a Deci SE150-M acoustic sensor
with a Vallen-Systeme AEP3 preamplifier. Acoustic
event, or hit recording is initiated when the transducer
signal exceeds a preset threshold, and acquisition can
run at up to 8000 hits per second. Each hit has an
associated amplitude, rise time, energy, counts (number
of threshold crossings), and duration. For each acoustic
hit recorded, additional readings from the parametric
load and displacement channels were also recorded. The
sensors were placed at opposite ends of the specimen just
outside of the gage length. They were coupled to the
specimen surface with honey and held in place with
rubber bands. Because the sensors are just outside the
deforming section of the specimen, the use of rubber
bands for holding sensors in place does not lead to
relative motion between the sensor and the specimen.
Past experience with couplants has indicated that honey
responds to lead pencil breaks in the same manner as

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Fig. 1. (a) A macroscopic stress
/strain response for a strain rate of 6.3 /10 5 s 1; (b) A re-scaled early yield; and (c) A re-scaled late yield region.

grease and ultrasonic gel. Honey was chosen for the

current project because of its higher viscosity compared
to ultrasonic gel and the ease of clean-up compared to
grease. The two-sensor configuration was used to
confirm that AE signals came from the gage section of
the specimen. Both sensors yielded essentially identical
results, so subsequent analysis was performed with data
from only one channel. The AE system bandwidth,
limited by the sensors frequency response, was 100
/450
kHz. The system was setup with a preamplifier gain of
40 dB, threshold of 25.3 dB, rearm time of 4 ms, and
duration discrimination time of 400 ms. These values
were experimentally selected to avoid collecting unwanted signals from machine and/or grip noise. Images
of the deformation were recorded in real time using a
digital CCD camera and an S-VHS VCR. At its smallest
working distance, the Nikon 105 mm Macro lens
mounted on the CCD camera provided a 6.5 /4.9
mm2 field of view. The video feed was synchronized
with the AE and parametric data to within 9/1 s.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Macroscopic material response
Experiments at the three different strain rates produced macroscopic stress
/strain curves that were gen-

erally indistinguishable in terms of yield stress,

hardening rate, ultimate stress and strain, and failure
stress and strain. Experiments at all rates produced
optically observable deformation bands traveling axially
at approximately 508 to the loading axis. The observed
angle of band propagation is in close agreement with
mathematical modeling of deformation bands (e.g. [28]).
In Fig. 1a, a stress
/strain curve from a slow strain rate
experiment shows distinct elastic, Luders, and serrated
yielding regions. Necking began when the ultimate stress
was reached, and the specimen failed very soon thereafter. The plastic deformation is no longer uniform in
the gage section when necking occurs and therefore
serration activity after necking was not included in the
analysis. For all experiments, the flow curves did not
exhibit critical strains signifying the beginning or ending
of serrated flow. Serrations began after the Luders
elongation and continued until failure. This is consistent
with the work of Romhanji et al. [5] on similar
aluminum alloys with large rolling reductions. Qualitatively, the macroscopic response shows that serrations
begin with small amplitudes and grow in amplitude until
the ultimate stress. The curve in Fig. 1a shows that the
serrations are not completely regular in width or
amplitude on the macroscopic scale. In Fig. 1b and c,
equally scaled, zoomed-in regions of the macroscopic
stress strain curve show that the serrations can be quite

J.M. Reed, M.E. Walter / Materials Science and Engineering A359 (2003) 1
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Fig. 2. Serrations for (a) slw; (b) medium; and (c) fast strain rates. All
figures have the same stress and strain range, and local maxima and
minima are indicated. Within (a) the width and amplitude of a
serration are indicated as Ds and Do , respectively.

regular and that there is dramatic growth in amplitude

and width during the yielding history.
3.2. Serration characteristics
Detailed views of serrations for the slow, medium,
and fast strain rates are shown in Fig. 2a
/c, respectively.
From these figures, it is clear that the parametric data

acquisition rate is sufficient for capturing all serration

characteristics. A sliding window search algorithm was
programmed in MATLAB to analyze the serrations
within a limited range of data and thereby finding local
extrema. To determine maxima and minima properly, it
was necessary to use a different sliding window parameter for each strain rate. The large dots on the
serrations shown in Fig. 2a
/c are typical results from
the MATLAB script. Fig. 2a
/c use the same scaling for
both axes to show the change in serration characteristics
with respect to strain rate.
With constant rate data acquisition, the many data
points present while going from a local minimum to a
subsequent local maximum show that the stress is rising
relatively slowly. The slope of the rising portions of the
serrations is of the same order of magnitude as the
materials elastic modulus, indicating that there is a
significant elastic component to the deformation. On the
other hand, once the local maximum is reached, the load
drop is nearly instantaneous with only occasional data
points between the maximum and subsequent minimum.
This is typical of Type B serrations [20]. The specimens
and the test conditions (temperature and strain rate)
were such that the serrations for all experiments in the
present investigation showed the same general character.
As shown in Fig. 2a, the serration amplitude (Ds) is
the vertical distance between a given local maximum and
the previous local minimum on the stress
/strain curve,
and the serration width (Do ) is the horizontal distance
between a given local minimum and the previous local
minimum. There was significant scatter for consecutive
extrema, which could be minimized by averaging over
several amplitudes or widths. For a running average
with 10 points, the resulting serration amplitudes are
shown in Fig. 3, and it is seen that amplitude increases
with increasing strain and that the rate of amplitude
change per unit strain (slope) decreases with increasing
strain rate. These results are consistent with previous
studies that have shown increasing serration amplitudes
with decreasing strain rate and with increasing dislocation density (e.g. [2,7,8]). Fig. 3 also shows the repeatability of these results with two experiments at each
strain rate being nearly identical. Aside from the nearly
constant initial region at the highest strain rate, all
amplitude curves rise more rapidly initially. The slowest
strain rate has the most scatter in the amplitude values
and shows some sub-periodicity at higher strains. The
percent amplitude increase for the entire range of strains
is approximately 200% for all strain rates.
Previous investigations have considered the relationships between strain rate and mobile dislocation density,
strain and mobile dislocation density, and average
pinning distances in order to determine ta, the aging
time (e.g. [15]). Since the aging time is proportional to
the serration amplitude, the result can be written as
follows [15]:

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Fig. 3. Serration amplitudes from two repeat experiments at each strain rate, as shown by o and x symbols.

Fig. 4. Serration widths from two repeat experiments at each strain rate, as shown by solid and dashed lines.

J.M. Reed, M.E. Walter / Materials Science and Engineering A359 (2003) 1
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Fig. 5. AE hits corresponding to serrated flow for strain rate of 3.8/10 4 s 1.

Ds8 (o1 o b=2 d n=2 T 1 D2=3 );

(1)

where b and n are material dependent constants, d is the

grain size, T is the temperature, and D is the diffusion
coefficient. The above relationship does not take into
account variations in vacancy concentrations. For
aluminum magnesium alloy, b /1.1 [15], and therefore
Eq. (1) predicts that the serration amplitude will vary
with strain to the 0.4 power. However, for the results
presented in Fig. 3, the serration amplitudes are best fit
by strain raised to the 0.7
/0.8 power. The data in Fig. 3
were also analyzed at fixed strain values, and it was
found that the serration amplitudes vary with strain rate
to the /0.55 power. This is close to the /0.66 value
predicted by Eq. (1). The reasons for the discrepancies
between the experimental results and simple model
presented in Eq. (1) are most likely tied to assumptions
that related the mobile dislocation density to strain and
to pinning distances.
The serration widths also have strain and strain rate
dependencies. The widths are linear with strain and the
best-fit lines are shown in Fig. 4. For all strain rates, the
serration width increases as the strain increases. This is
not completely unexpected since the slopes of the rising
portion of the serrations are nearly constant and therefore higher amplitudes result in increased serration
widths. The width of the falling portion of the serrations
bear some relation to the machine stiffness, however this
component of the serration width is negligible. As with

the trend for rates of change of amplitude, the slopes of

the serration width curves also decrease with increasing
strain rate. Since the absolute magnitude of the serration
width is similar for all three strain rates, the serration
width curves cross each other. The starting serration
widths vary significant between different experiments
because the serrations are not well defined early in the
deformation history. On the other hand, with welldefined serrations later in the plastic region (Fig. 1b and
c), the final serration widths are nearly identical for
experiments at the same strain rates.
3.3. Acoustic emission and deformation band
observations
AE data interpretation focused on characterizing the
AE based on the acoustic energy of the hits. The energy
is defined as a root mean square value of the acoustic
event and can be thought of as the persistence of a hit.
As was previously mentioned, parametric load and
displacement data were acquired together with AE
results, and thus synchronization is assured. For all
experiments, no AE was present during elastic deformation, significant, continuous AE occurred in the Luders
region, and scattered AE was present in the subsequent
plastic region.
In the results that follow, for clarity, the AE data are
reduced to indicate the presence of an event and the
serrations are plotted by connecting maximum and

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Fig. 6. A serrated flow anomaly for (a) slow; (b) medium; and (c) fast
strain rates.

minimum values. Fig. 5 shows the positions of the AE

signals with respect to the serrations; all AE events are
associated with serration maxima. Even when a very low
threshold was used for AE acquisition, not every
serration peak was associated with a distinct acoustic
event. These results contrast some of the previous work
that has shown AE at each serration peak (e.g. [16,23]).
The results for other strain rates are similar to those

presented in Fig. 5. With the stress drops being

associated with dislocations escaping solute atoms, it is
not surprising that AE activity would be found at the
serration peaks. Most of the existing literature does not
show this level of detail in correlating AE and individual
serration peaks.
For macroscopic stress
/strain curves such as that
shown in Fig. 1, the serrated flow region does exhibit
some non-uniformity at various values of strain. As
shown in Fig. 6a
/c, regions where serrations temporarily lost their regularity, referred to as serration anomalies in this work, are typically associated with large AE
bursts. The hits associated with these anomalies in Fig.
6a
/c are significantly more persistent hits than those
corresponding to the isolated serration peaks in Fig. 5.
It has been stated that the main source of AE in metals
is collective motion of large dislocation groups [24].
Although each stress drop associated with a serration
represents motion of a large group of dislocations,
relatively few AE signals from these groups of dislocation are registered by the AE instrumentation. On the
other hand, the AE instrumentation does record significant AE associated with more severe lack of uniformity in the serrations. It is concluded that these
anomalies in the serrations are the result of the motion
of even larger groups of dislocations. This difference in
acoustic signature indicates that the anomalies and the
serrations are two distinct phenomenon.
In Fig. 7, the plastic region of a slow rate stress
/strain
curve is presented alongside normalized, cumulative AE
count curves for each of the three strain rates. The
normalization is performed by subtracting all counts up
to and including the Luders region and then dividing by
the maximum number of subsequent slow rate counts.
The steps on the cumulative plots correlate with
anomalies in the stress
/strain curve. In the early plastic
region, the anomalies are difficult to distinguish in both
the stress
/strain and AE data. However, stepwise AE
response is more distinct as the material is further
deformed. Fig. 7 shows that the acoustic response over
the course of the plastic region, as well as for individual
anomalies, is a function of strain rate.
The above description of the regular serrations and
serration anomalies together with the AE indicate that
there are different small-scale deformation mechanisms
active during plastic deformation. In addition, since
deformation bands are more distinct later in the
deformation history, there is some indication that
deformation bands are related to serration anomalies.
From the serration characteristics, it is deduced that
Type B serrations were present for all experiments (e.g.
[1,7,20]). The deformation bands associated with Type B
serrations are known as hopping bands and will appear
at various places in the specimen, propagate for short
distances, and then disappear. It is noted that although
only a small part of the gage section was visible in the

J.M. Reed, M.E. Walter / Materials Science and Engineering A359 (2003) 1
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Fig. 7. For the plastic strain range, a slow rate stress
/strain curve together with normalized, cumulative AE for the three different strain rates.

synchronized video, the AE is obtained from the entire

gage section. During the course of one particular
medium rate experiment, approximately 5 bands moved
through the cameras field of view. Serrations and AE
were analyzed for the 5 bands, and it was found that
some trends in the data were identifiable. First, a
relatively large drop in stress characterized the onset
of every band. Second, every band propagated either
immediately or shortly after an anomaly appears.
Finally, with the exception of the anomaly, serrations
were generally uniform near the actual band propagation. Of the 5 bands captured on video, the serrations
associated with 2 bands are shown in Fig. 8a and b. Fig.
8a shows a distinct gap between the anomaly and the
propagation of Band 1. It is thought that perhaps the
band began propagating when the anomaly appeared
but simply was not yet visible in the cameras field of
view. Fig. 8b represents a different case in which the
entire band initiation was captured in the field of view.
Band 2a initiated and then instantaneously re-oriented
itself at the supplementary angle to the first and then
continued propagating. The reoriented band is labeled
as Band 2b in Fig. 8b. Thus, larger stress drops are also
associated with band reorientation.
The observations linking deformation bands to AE at
medium strain rates are applicable at other rates as well.
Because the camera had a limited field of view, based on

video observations, it is difficult to draw conclusions

regarding the number of deformation bands propagating during a particular experiment. However, based on
the preceding discussion linking AE anomalies to
deformation bands and from cumulative AE plots
such as those shown in Fig. 7, it is concluded that
deformation bands are more active during slower strain
rate experiments.

4. Summary
The material under investigation exhibited serrated
flow for the duration of plastic deformation at each of
three chosen experimental strain rates. Serrations were
quantitatively characterized during deformation after
the Luders region and before necking and were determined to be Type B serrations. Serration amplitudes
increased with increasing strain and decreased with
increasing strain rate. The percent increase in amplitude
was nearly constant for each strain rate. AE from
serrations was also analyzed. Low energy AEs were
associated with isolated serration peaks, and higher
energy AEs were associated with anomalies in the
serrated flow curves. Through synchronized video, these
anomalies in the macroscopic serrated flow curves and

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Fig. 8. Two examples (a, b) of AE, anomalies, and band propagation at a strain rate of 3.8/10 4 s 1.

the AE were linked to macrostructural deformation

bands seen propagating on the specimen surfaces.

Science Foundation grant No. CMS-9984837. The

authors would also like to thank Prof Glenn Daehn
for providing specimens and for valuable comments
throughout this work.

Acknowledgements
The funds for the acoustic emission equipment were
provided by National Science Foundation grant No.
CMS-9872606 managed by Dr Jorn Larsen-Basse. Mr J.
Reed has been supported with National Science Foundation funds and in particular, through National

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