Design of a Pair of Noncircular Gears Meeting

Ackermann Steering Principle

Sheng Zhao, Jing-Shan Zhao and Zhi-Jing Feng
Department of Precision Instruments and Mechanology
Tsinghua University
Beijing 100084, P. R. China
zhaoc08@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
motions. The main process of designing a pair of noncircular
gears consists of two steps [7]. First, determine the pitch curves
of the noncircular gears. Second, determine other parameters of
the noncircular gears, especially the tooth profiles, to make
sure that the two noncircular gears can mesh correctly.

AbstractThis paper focuses on the design of a pair of

noncircular gears, which is used in a concept automobile steering
system to make the steering meet Ackermann steering principle.
Based upon Ackermann steering principle, the pitch curves of the
noncircular gears are formulated. The tooth profiles, addendum
and dedendum curves, and transition curves of the noncircular
gears are designed. Moreover, the phenomenon of the tooth
profile reflection is discussed. Three-dimensional model of the
noncircular gears is developed in Pro/ENGINEER, where a
motion simulation is also carried out to prove the design.

II.

This section first introduces the Ackermann steering

principle formulation and then introduces a concept steering
system, in which the pair of noncircular gears are used.

Keywords-Noncircular Gears; Ackermann Steering Principle;

Pitch Curves; Tooth Profiles; Transition Curves

I.

As shown in Fig. 1, by Ackermann steering principle, the

angles turned through by the two front wheels should satisfy
the following relation [9]:

INTRODUCTION

Ackermann steering principle [1] can be simply stated that

the automotive wheels should all move about a common centre
point when turning. Meeting Ackermann steering principle can
make the wheels do pure rolling without sideslip, so that can
reduce the tire wear. The most commonly used four-bar linkage
steering trapezoid cannot always meet the Ackermann steering
principle exactly. So many researchers have done a series of
work trying to improve the steering system. Fahey [2]
introduced a Fahey eight-member mechanism (FEMM), which
could control the angle error of the inside steering wheel in
0.03 even in a large steering range of 61. Pramanik [3]
synthesized a Pramanik six-member mechanism (PSMM),
which has 5 exact points meeting the Ackermann steering
principle. The overall accuracy of PSMM is higher than that of
the traditional four-bar linkage steering trapezoid, but lower
than that of FEMM. Gautam and Awadhiya [4] also adopted a
six-bar linkage to make the steering have 7 exact points
meeting the Ackermann steering principle. Although its overall
accuracy is higher than that of the traditional four-bar linkage
steering trapezoid, it is lower than that of either FEMM or
PSMM. Carcaterra [5] added a differential mechanism in the
steering system, which provides substantial improvements for
the large steering angles. Emura and Arakawa [6] investigated
noncircular gears in the design of the steering system.

l cot rw l cot lw = b,

(1)

where l denotes the wheel base, b denotes the wheel tread,

lw and rw represent the angles turned through from the
forward direction by the front left wheel and the front right
wheel, respectively. lw and rw are positive when the vehicle
turns left.
A concept automobile steering system with pure rotation
transfers is proposed [10] to meet the Ackermann steering
principle, as shown in Fig. 2. In the concept automobile
steering system, steering rotational input is transferred to the
right steering shafts by a middle pair of bevel gears. The
rotation of the right steering shafts is then, on the one hand,
transferred to the front right wheel by a right pair of bevel
gears; and on the other hand, transferred to the left steering
shafts through a pair of noncircular gears. Then the rotation of
the left steering shafts is transferred to the front left wheel by a

lw

This paper also focuses on an automobile steering system

meeting the Ackermann steering principle. It consists of a pair
of noncircular gears that we use to reach this goal. Noncircular
gears [7] are a kind of gears that have noncircular pitch curves,
and hence can be used to transfer non-uniform speed ratio

978-1-61284-459-6/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE

ACKERMANN STEERING PRINCIPLE AND A CONCEPT

AUTOMOBILE STEERING SYSTEM

rw

Figure 1. Ackermann Steering Principle

217

combining (4), (5), with (6), there is

ln
1
=
.
2
2
rn
( b / l ) sin rw b / l sin ( 2rw ) + 1

(7)

The meshing noncircular gears can be treated as pure

rolling along their pitch curves, which means

ln / rn = rrn / rln ,
Figure 2. A Concept Automobile Steering System

where rrn and rln are the polar radii of the pitch curves of the
right noncircular gear and the left noncircular gear with the
polar origins located at each shaft centre, respectively. Hence,
substituting (7) into (8), we obtain

left pair of bevel gears. The left and the right steering shafts
are both made up of a pair of constant velocity joints.
To further describe the concept steering system, the
noncircular gear which is connected with the left steering
shafts is named the left noncircular gear, and the other
noncircular gear is named the right noncircular gear. The
positive directions of the angular displacements of the gears
that have horizontal shafts are defined to point rightwards.
Therefore, we have
ilb = ln / lw
,

irb = rn / rw

rrn
1
=
.
rln ( b / l )2 sin 2 rw b / l sin ( 2 rw ) + 1

rln + rrn = d .

(2)

rrn =

(3)

(b / l )

sin rw b / l sin ( 2 rw ) + 2
2

rn / rw =

(4)

rn

dt /

time

rn / rw =

From (4), we can find that the angular velocities of the two
front wheels are determined by the angular velocities of the
two noncircular gears. We will have the angles turned through
by the two front wheels meet the Ackermann steering
principle when we design the noncircular gears properly. So
next, we discuss the design of the pair of noncircular gears,
consisting of the design of pitch curves, addendum curves,
dedendum curves, tooth profiles and transition curves.

rw

dt.

(11)

(12)

time

( i

rb

rw ) dt /

time

rw

time

dt.

(13)

Since irb is a constant, it can be drawn out from the

integral sign, therefore,

rn / rw = irb .

(14)

Note that when the shaft of the right noncircular gear

rotates by an angle of rn , it is at the polar radius
corresponding to the polar angle rn that the pure rotation
takes place. Hence, we have

A. Design of Pitch Curves

According to (1), we have

rn = rn .

(5)

(15)

Combining (14) with (15), one can obtain

rw = rn / irb .

Since

lw / rw = dlw / d rw ,

Applying (2) to (12), we will have

DESIGN OF THE PAIR OF NONCIRCULAR GEARS

dlw
1
=
.
d rw ( b / l )2 sin 2 rw b / l sin ( 2rw ) + 1

d
2

We now try to replace rw with rn , where rn denotes

the polar angle of the right noncircular gear. For this purpose,
we introduce a variable rn , which represents the angular
displacement of the shaft of the right noncircular gear. Specify
that rn = 0 when rw = 0 ; rn = 0 when rn = 0 ; rn has the
same positive direction as rn . Assume the front right wheel
turns through an angle rw from the zero position, therefore,

In this paper, we assume (3) always holds. Combining (2)

with (3), there will be

III.

(10)

Combining (9) and (10), we can obtain

Considering the symmetry design between the left pair of

bevel gears and the right pair of bevel gears, we let

ln / rn = lw / rw .

(9)

Assume the center distance of the two noncircular gears is

d , then there is

where ln ( rn ) is the angular velocity of the left(right)

noncircular gear, lw ( rw ) is the angular velocity of the front
left(right) wheel, ilb ( irb ) is the transmission ratio of the
left(right) pair of bevel gears from the steering shaft to the
wheel.

ilb = irb .

(8)

(6)

(16)

Substituting (16) into (11), we finally get the polar

equation of the right noncircular gear as following:

218

rrn =

(b / l )

sin 2 ( rn / irb ) b / l sin ( 2 rn / irb ) + 2

C. Design of tooth profiles

The profiles of the noncircular gears are designed based
upon the pitch curves using the analytical method [8].

(17)

Similarly, we can get the polar equation of the left

noncircular gear as following:
rln =

(b / l )

sin ( ln / ilb ) b / l sin ( 2 ln / ilb ) + 2

2

For any profile point, P , located outside/inside the pitch

curve, suppose the inward/exterior normal of the profile drawn
through P and the pitch curve intersect at a point Q , as
shown in Fig. 3. We use QR to denote the tangent of the pitch

(18)

curve through point Q , ( 0, ) to denote the angle turned

through from OQ to QR anticlockwise about the point Q .
Then we will have [11]

Comparing (17) with (18), it can be found that rln = rrn

when ln = rn . However, since ln and rn have the same
positive direction and they all start from the center connection
line of the two noncircular gears, it means the polar curves of
the two noncircular gears are centrosymmetric about the
midpoint of their center connection line. Therefore, the two
noncircular gears can be designed centrosymmetrically. As a
result, we will just investigate the left noncircular gear later in
this paper, and the right noncircular gear is obtained using the
centrosymmetric characteristics.

tan =

rln ( ln )

ln

=Q

(22)

According to the analytical method [8], the coordinate of

the profile is:
x = r cos Q r ( )d cos cos ( + )
Q
n
Q
n
Qn ln ln ln
lp Q

Q
ylp = rQ sin Q rln (ln )dln cos n sin (Q + n )
Qn

, (23)

Q
xrp = rQ cos Q B rln (ln )dln cos n cos ( Q + + n )
Qn

yrp = rQ sin Q B Q rln ( ln )dln cos n sin (Q + + n )

n

axis is located where ln = 90D . From (18), we have

(19)

Thus we can plot the pitch curve of the left noncircular

gear using (18) and (19) with b , l , d , and ilb all known.

where subscript lp denotes the profile through Qn is a left

profile, subscript rp denotes the profile through Qn is a right
profile, rQ is the polar radius of point Q , Q is the polar
angle of point Q , the upper sign in or B represents the
profiles outside the pitch curve, while the lower sign
represents the profiles inside the pitch curve, Qn ( n ' ) is the
intersection points of the profiles and the pitch curve, '
represents the integer set, Qn is the polar angle of point

B. Design of addendum curves and dedendum curves

Having known the pitch curves of the two noncircular
gears, the addendum and dedendum curves can be obtained in
line with the equidistance line formula [11]. In the plotting
coordinate system, o p x p y p , the addendum curve equation of
the left noncircular gear can be represented as following:

Qn , ( 0, ) and can be worked out using (22), n is the

pressure angle. Each point Q will result in a profile point P ,
and can be appointed from the point Qn by increasing Qn

(20)

where xln and yln are given as (19), ha is the addendum

factor, m is the gear module, xln is the derivative of xln with
respect to ln , and yln is the derivative of yln with respect to
ln . The dedendum curve equation of the left noncircular gear
can also be obtained that:
X d = x h my / x 2 + y 2
ln
f
ln
ln
ln
ln
,
d
Yln = yln + hf mxln / xln2 + yln2

=Q

derivative of rln ( ln ) with respect to ln , Q is the polar angle

of OQ .

noncircular gear. The x p -axis is along the center connection

line of the two noncircular gears, pointing from the center of
the left noncircular gear to the center of the right one. The y p -

X a = x + h my / x 2 + y 2
ln
a
ln
ln
ln
ln
,
a

2
2
Yln = yln ha mxln / xln + y ln

ln

where ( 0, ) , rln ( ln ) is shown as (18), rln ( ln ) is the

We establish a plotting Cartesian coordinate system,

o p x p y p , with the origin, o p , located at the center of the left

xln = rln cos ln

.

yln = rln sin ln

rln ( ln )

piece by piece as you wish.

Now we discuss how Qn ( n ' ) come about. On the pitch
curve, the pitch p and the tooth thickness s are both m / 2 ,

(21)
Q

where hf is the dedendum factor.

Figure 3. The Profile of a Noncircular Gear

219

where UO f is the length of the line segment UO f , ha*0 is the

addendum factor of the rack and is generally equal to 1, and
m is the gear module. Therefore,

72
71
70
69

UT = UO f + ,

(26)

QnU = ha*0 m tan n + cos n + UO f cot T ,

(27)

68
67

and

66
65

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

Figure 4. The Reflection of the Tooth Profile

where UT is the length of the line segment UT , and QnU

is the length of the line segment QnU .

where m is the gear module. Therefore, the arc length

determined by the two neighboring intersection points of the
profiles and the pitch curve is m / 2 . To keep the
centrosymmetric characteristics on profiles of the left and
right noncircular gears, we set Q0 to be 0. Then the polar

When the rack pitch line and the pitch curve of the
noncircular gear are tangent at the point U , since the line TU
is the inward normal of the tip fillet, the rack cutter tip fillet
and the transition curve of the noncircular gear will get
contacted at the point T [8]. Therefore, if we work out the
position of the point T at the time, we can get the
corresponding point on the transition curve.

angles of other intersection points, Qn , can be determined by

solving the integral equation
Qn

Q0

rln ( ln ) d ln = n m / 2.

(24)

Suppose the rack pitch line and the pitch curve of the
noncircular gear are tangent at the point Qn ( Qn ) firstly. Next
the rack cutter moves rightwards, making the rack cutter and
the noncircular gear contact at the point U , as shown in Fig.
JJJJG
6. We use U to denote the polar angle of OU , U ( 0, )

When plotting profiles, a reflection of the tooth profile will

occur once the profile get intersected with the base curve, as
shown in Fig. 4. The reason for the reflection is that the
involutes are expanded outsides the base curve. So there could
not be involutes insides a base curve. The analytical method
we use here is derived based upon the existence of the
involutes. In fact, if we investigate the reflection of the tooth
profile as Fig. 3 and choose the inward normal drawn through
the point P , we can find (23) is also available.

to denote the angle at the point U . Hence, U can be

worked out using
U

D. Transition curves, undercutting and tooth interference

For rack cutters, the transition curves are the envelope
curves of the rack tooth tip fillet and are formed naturally by
the rack cutters when machining [8]. The transition curves can
be formulated as following.

rln ( ln ) d ln = QnU ,

Then U can be worked out using (22) where ln = U .

Thus, after specifying the angle T , we can obtain the
JJJG
polar angle of UT as

UT = U + U + T 2 .

at the point U . Since O f is the center of the fillet, the line

TO f , in fact, is the inward normal of the tip fillet. T is the

acute angle determined by TU and the pitch line, so
T n ,90D . n is the pressure angle. Thus, we have

c0 m

(25)

ha0 m ha0 m

c0m

(29)

Therefore, the coordinate of the point T is

JJJG
xT = rln (U ) cos U + UT cos UT

,
(30)
JJJG

yT = rln (U ) sin U + UT sin UT

JJJG
where U can be worked out using (28), UT is equal to UT

point on the tip fillet. The line TO f and the pitch line intersect

m/ 2

(28)

where Qn is computed by (24), and QnU is shown as (27).

As shown in Fig. 5, the rack cutter has a tip fillet with a

radius of . The points S and E represent the endpoints of
the tip fillet. O f is the center of the fillet. The point T is any

UO f = ( ha*0 m sin n ) / sin T ,

Qn

Figure 5. The Rack cutter and Tip Fillet

Figure 6. A Point, T, on the Transition Curve

220

as shown in (26), and UT can be obtained by (29).

CONCLUSIONS
A pair of noncircular gears is designed, which is used in a
concept automobile steering system to make the steering meet
Ackermann steering principle. The pitch curves, addendum
curves, dedendum curves, tooth profiles and transition curves
of the noncircular gears are formulated. Moreover, the
phenomenon of the tooth profile reflection is discussed. A
sample is given in Pro/ENGINEER, where a motion
simulation is carried out to prove the meshing motion.

Change T from n to 90e, then the position of the point

T will change on the tip fillet, and we can get a number of
points on the transition curve. Connect these points smoothly,
and the transition curve can be obtained. Since the pitch curve
of the noncircular gear is noncircular, each transition curve is
not the same as others. So, we need to design the transition
curves one after one.
For rack cutters, to avoid undercutting, there should be [8]
mmax min sin 2 n / ha0 ,

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

(31)

This research was supported by the Beijing Municipal

Natural Science Foundation under Grant 3112014, the
National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant
50805083, a Foundation for the Author of National Excellent
Doctoral Dissertation of China under Grant 200741 and the
Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University.
The authors gratefully acknowledge these support agencies.

where mmax is the maximal gear module allowed, min is the

minimal radius of curvature of the pitch curve, n is the
pressure angle, ha0 is the addendum factor of the rack and is
generally equal to 1. The noncircular gears machined by rack
cutters have no tooth interference [8].
For wire cutting, we can design the noncircular gears as
processed by the rack cutter. Moreover, if the tooth profiles
can reach the addendum curve, then, for the convenience of
design, we can use a simplified transition curve that a fillet
with the radius of [12]
rc = 0.2m,

REFERENCES
[1]

K. K. Jain, and R. B. Asthana, Automobile Engineering. New Dehli:

Tata McGraw-Hill, c2002.
[2] S. OF. Fahey, and D. R. Huston, A Novel Automotive Steering
Linkage, Journal of Mechanical Design, vol. 119, pp. 481-484 ,
December 1997.
[3] S. Pramanik, Kinematic Synthesis of a Six-Member Mechanism for
Automotive Steering, Journal of Mechanical Design, vol. 124, pp. 642645, December 2002.
[4] E. N. S. Gautam, and P. Awadhiya, Kinematic Synthesis of a Modified
Ackermann Steering Mechanism for Automobiles, SAE paper 2007-013636, 2007.
[5] A. Carcaterra, and W. DAmbrogio, A Function Generating
Differential Mechanism for an Exact Solution of the Steering Problem,
Mechanism and Machine Theory, vol. 33, pp. 535-549, July 1998.
[6] T. Emura, and A. Arakawa, A New Steering Mechanism Using
Noncircular Gears, JSME International Journal, Ser. 3, vol. 35, pp. 604610, December 1992.
[7] X. T. Wu, and G. H. Wang, Noncircular Gear and Non-uniform Speed
Ratio Transmission. Beijing: China Machine Press, 1997 (In Chinese).
[8] F. S. Li, Z. G. Lin, Z. F. Yin, and Z. D. Zhang, et al, Design of
Noncircular Gear and Special Gear Transmission. Beijing: China
Machine Press, 1983 (In Chinese).
[9] W. X. Liu, Car Design. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2001 (In
Chinese).
[10] J. S. Zhao, H. Z. Jin, S. Zhao, and Z. J. Feng, Innovative Concept
Design of an Independent Front Suspension and the Steering System,
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D, Journal
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[11] Writing Group of Mathematics Handbook, Mathematics Handbook.
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[12] J. Z. Wu, and T. Wang, The Tooth Root Transition Curve and Stress.
Beijing: National Defence Industry Press, 1989 (In Chinese).

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where m is the gear module.

IV.

A SAMPLE DESIGN

Here, we give a sample design of the noncircular gears.

The quantities known are shown in Table I.
TABLE I.

QUANTITIES KNOWN IN THE SAMPLE

/mm

/mm

/mm

/mm

/e

200

1380

2300

25

ilb

irb

ha

hf

1.25

Considering the angle turned through by the front wheel

D
D
rw is generally less than 60, we let rn 60 ,60 in line

D
D
with (16). Similarly, we let ln 60 , 60 . Specify the
profile of the left noncircular gear which passes through point
Q0 is a left profile, then we can obtain the noncircular gear
assembly in Pro/ENGINEER as Fig. 7. If we set the angular
velocities of the left and right noncircular gears in accordance
with (7), and set the initial meshing position at ln = rn = 0D ,
then a simulation can be run to prove the meshing motion.

Figure 7. The Assembly of the Pair of Noncircular Gears

221