As SIS Textbook AnswersAV

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 1 questions
page 1
AS Science in Society
Answers to the questions
Chapter 1 The germ theory of disease
The answers suggested here should not be read as model answers.
They are intended to indicate a possible approach. In some cases,
information and comments are included which go beyond the direct
requirements of the question.
1 and 2 Semmelweiss factors and observations:
the people delivering babies (medical students seemed more
likely to cause the disease than midwives),
the other activities of the people involved (the main difference
between these two groups of carers was that medical students
also dissected corpses),
contamination on the hands of the people (medical students
moved straight from dissection to delivering babies).
the role of hand-washing in preventing infection (he found that
the more careful and frequent the doctors hand-washing the
less the infection of mothers).
3
Semmelweis suggested that an infectious agent found in corpses

might be transmitted to patients through cuts.
Chlorinated lime is an effective disinfectant; it kills the germs

carried on the doctors hands.
Examples:
hand washing before eating, before preparing food, and after
using toilet;
washing fruit and vegetables;
keeping food cold;
keeping food covered.
Page 1
Semmelweiss was young and inexperienced. He was proposing a

significant change in accepted practice. People seldom change
their minds easily unless they have enormous respect for the
person suggesting the change. Scientific evidence alone is very
slow to change ideas. Semmelweisss experience is in contrast
with the rapid acceptance of Pasteurs ideas 10 or 15 years later
because Pasteurs reputation had already been established.
The Nuffield Foundation, 2008
Copies may be made for UK in schools and colleges

page 1
Preventive measures are very effective in reducing the incidence

of infectious diseases such as puerperal fever. However there is
almost always a need for curative measures as well, to treat the
few cases which still occur. Antibiotics, the only cure for puerperal
fever, were only introduced in the 1950s. Until then a few women
continued to die.
In developing countries many women give birth at home, assisted

by a traditional birth attendant. They have very little clean water
so even if they understand the importance of hygiene it is difficult
to achieve. But also many people who have had little or no
education still use traditional practices, which may actually
introduce infection. Instruments are not sterilised, local materials
such as dung or plant material may be applied to the woman. In
many areas the nearest medical services may be too far away.
Education and training for local traditional midwives is probably
the most important way of preventing these deaths. But the
midwives also need more access to sterile equipment, antibiotics
and clean water as well as support from medically qualified staff if
there are complications.
Answers which suggest that all women should give birth in
modern hospitals reflect a lack of awareness of the reality of life in
the rural areas of developing countries.
Lack of either sanitation or rubbish disposal made the air smell

bad. This led to the theory that the bad smells given off by any
decomposing organic matter or rotten flesh could cause disease.
The theory explained the well known association between
unhygienic living conditions, and rates of infection.
10 a)
Chadwick believed that the smells in the air caused the
disease. He therefore predicted that reducing smells by removing
sewage would reduce disease.
b)
By washing all infected sewage into the Thames, he actually

spread cholera because at that time, many people all over London
used water taken directly from the Thames. Drinking infected
water is a very effective way of catching cholera.
11 If the infectious agent multiplied in an infected person it would

explain how the disease developed in the individual. But even
more important, it explained how one infected person could
supply enough material to infect a large number of other people.
12 Snow showed clearly that there was a correlation between the
water supply and the incidence of cholera. He was not able to
demonstrate a causative agent actually in the water. He was not
believed because people were unwilling to believe in germs that
Page 2


page 1
they could not see, smell or taste. They wanted more evidence
before overthrowing an existing theory.
13 One way was by mapping the homes of all the people who got
cholera and showing that they all got their drinking water from the
same source.
Secondly, he collected data to show that the prevalence of the
disease depended on the water company that supplied the water.
14 It was public. It worked. It was easy to understand.
15 The two conflicting theories led to two different, testable,
predictions for the probable distribution of cholera cases in the
area. In part of South London, houses in the same street often got
water from different suppliers. One of the suppliers provided clean
unpolluted water, the other provided Thames water containing
sewage. The miasma theory would predict that people living in the
same street would breathe the same air and therefore have the
same chance of getting cholera. The water-borne theory would
predict that the chance of getting cholera depended on the water
supply, not the air in that street. Snow found that the incidence of
cholera was linked to the water supply, as predicted by his theory,
but not by the miasma theory.
16 A short answer is that it is easier to believe in germs once you can
actually see them. Good microscopes allowed scientists to
recognise differences between different organisms and to learn
that the organism is specific to the particular disease.
A longer answer would require an explanation of Kochs work.
Experimental work based on his postulates
(http://web.ukonline.co.uk/b.gardner/Koch.htm) finally confirmed
the germ theory of disease.
17 It is not possible to test every situation and therefore it is always
possible that some unexpected factor could cause spontaneous
generation. It is always hard to prove a negative.
Pasteur set out to show that it does not happen under any of the
conditions he tested. He then made the generalisation that
spontaneous generation is not possible. But all such scientific
theories are provisional; they might be changed by new
discoveries.
18 This suggested that the infected worms contaminated the leaves
in some way leaving an infectious agent behind.
19 It is usually essential to demonstrate the causal agent and a
plausible mechanism (in this case for infection) before a theory
can be fully accepted.
Page 3


page 1
20 The front line barriers to infection shown in Figure 1.11 sometimes

fail. The skin may be cut; tetanus is an infection which enters the
body via a cut. The respiratory system may be damaged by
influenza or other disease allowing infection such as pneumonia to
take hold. The stomach acid is ineffective against some microbes,
particularly if they are present in large numbers. Salmonella from
infected food enters this way.
The second line of defence, the immune system, usually deals
with microbes if they do enter the body. However, the immune
system is sensitive to the overall health of the body and
malnutrition, or another infection, can make it less effective.
21 Death from any disease may be due to a failure of either
prevention or cure.
The most important methods for prevention of cholera are the
provision of clean water and effective sewage treatment and
disposal. In Low Income countries, neither of these measures are
widely available, so once one person is infected, the disease is
able to spread rapidly. This is a particular problem when people
are crowded together as they are in refugee camps.
Death from cholera is due to dehydration rather than the toxicity
of the bacteria, and it is often possible to cure the patient if they
drink large quantities of clean water containing salts and sugar.
Nowadays, health workers are all taught about the importance of
this Oral Rehydration but not everyone who gets cholera is cared
for by someone with this knowledge.
Children are particularly vulnerable because their immune
systems are less developed. They may also take less hygiene
precautions.
22 The cartoon in Figure 1.14 shows that people were frightened of
having the smallpox vaccine because it was derived from cows (as
the name vaccination indicates). They thought that somehow
features of the cow would be transferred to their bodies. Many
people still have exaggerated fears of vaccination but the
symptoms they fear are different. See p 21 for examples.
23 a)
As part of Jenners medical practice, he made observations
and heard information from local farmers about how cowpox
protected against smallpox. He also knew that one attack of
smallpox, if survived, meant that you would never catch it again.
This led him to the hypothesis that deliberate infection with
cowpox would give protection against smallpox.
b) and c) Jenner predicted that if someone were infected with cowpox
they could later be safely exposed to smallpox. The only way to
Page 4


page 1
find out whether his hypothesis was correct was to test the
prediction experimentally. He did this by infecting a small boy with
cowpox, taking some pus from cowpox spots on a milkmaid and
scratching it into the boys skin. When the child had recovered
from the mild cowpox illness, he deliberately infected him with
smallpox, taking some pus from a smallpox spot and scratching
this into the boys skin. The prediction was confirmed. The boy
remained healthy.
24 Not all experiments work as planned. Most people, like the
assistant, would have just put this one down to carelessness and
ignored it. They were not looking for a vaccine at the time but
Pasteur knew about Jenners work and recognised how important
the technique would be if it could be applied to other diseases.
Somehow, he made the connection in his mind between a batch of
chicken cholera which was less serious than usual, and the
cowpox. He had the ability to link a chance observation in one set
of experiments to a different problem he had already been
thinking about.
25 Although by this time, 1879, more and more evidence was
accumulating in favour of the germ theory of disease, there were
still many people like Rossignol who did not believe it. Pasteurs
anthrax experiment provided scientists with important
confirmation of the theory. The technique was developed using
predictions made by the germ theory. It would have been hard to
explain the results using any other theory.
It also helped acceptance by the public. This demonstration was
easy to understand. The vaccinated sheep lived, the others died.
Because anthrax was a major problem for farmers, the results of
the experiment were widely publicised.
26 a)
This story is one of several which do not show Pasteurs
personality in a very good light. He was a competitive and
ruthless man.
Unfortunately, because he was the acknowledged expert in the
field, people trusted his verdict on Toussaint. Peer review does not
always work.
b)
The loss of new ideas and the discouragement of young scientists

in this way must slow down the development of scientific
knowledge.
27 Similarities: the basic principle, of controlled exposure of the body

to a microbe to stimulate the immune system, was the same in all
three cases.
Page 5


page 1
Differences: Jenner did not need to find a way of weakening the

smallpox virus because he used a naturally occurring disease,
cowpox, which was less serious but similar enough to provide
immunity. For most diseases there is no such mild but similar
disease, and a vaccine is a microbe weakened by treatment in the
laboratory. The discovery of ways of doing this is one of Pasteurs
important contributions to medicine.
The research work leading to the use of the vaccine was also
different. Pasteur, working eighty years later, tested his vaccines
in more carefully designed experiments, using controls. Whereas
Jenners first trial was on a small boy, Pasteur tested his vaccines
on animals before they were used on humans.
28 Points which might be used in the argument to support Pasteurs
decision include: he had tested the vaccine in dogs; the patients
or their parents had given consent, even begged him to do it; he
discussed the decision to treat humans with his colleagues,
including doctors. Although not all those bitten do die, the chance
of doing so was 1 in 6 (16 in 100), a high risk. As he continued to
treat humans, the statistics began to confirm that the vaccine
greatly reduced the risk of developing the disease.
Points which suggest he should have spent more time developing
the vaccine include: the fact that it had only been tested on about
50 dogs and on no other species; he did not fully understand how
his vaccine worked. (Rabies is caused by a virus and could not
therefore be seen or grown outside living tissue.) Today Pasteur
would not have been allowed to use his vaccine on humans until
he had spent far more time developing it. (The same conflict
between adequate testing and immediate need for medical care
still arises today.)
29 All new scientific claims should be confirmed by being repeated in
a different laboratory by different workers. There is always the
possibility that the work cannot be repeated because the original
results depended on some unknown local factor or even on fraud.
30 a)
Cells: Kochs work to identify and distinguish the cells of
bacteria that cause disease.
b)
Microbes: Snows theory about invisible infectious agents; Kochs

identification of bacteria that cause disease; Pasteurs study of
fermentation and experiments to show that spontaneous
generation does not happen.
c) and d) Immune system and protection by infection: longstanding

practice of immunisation against smallpox in Turkey disseminated
by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu; the work of Jenner with cowpox
and Pasteur with anthrax and rabies.
Page 6


page 1
31 a)
Correlation: between dissecting corpses and puerperal
fever; between drinking water from a particular source and
infection with cholera; between infection with cowpox and being
resistant to smallpox.
b)
Controlling factors: Pasteurs experiments with silk worms and his

classic swan-necked flask studies of fermentation.
c)
Plausible mechanism: Kochs work to identify bacteria and to show

that particular germs cause particular diseases; Pasteurs
demonstration that he had isolated and cultured the bacterium
that causes chicken cholera.
d)
Theories involving invisible objects: Snows theory of there being

an infectious agent in contaminated water.
e)
Imagination and conjecture: Snows theory of the cause of cholera

at a time when the miasma theory was dominant; Pasteurs
recognition of the significance of a failed experiment.
f)
Testing predictions: Jenners prediction of the results of inoculation

with cowpox; Pasteurs vaccination experiments notably with
anthrax.
g)
Influence of earlier work: the influence of Jenners work on Pasteur

who decided to extend the idea beyond smallpox to other
diseases.
h)
Desire to be first with a discovery: notably Pasteur in all his work.
Page 7


page 1
Chapter 2 Infectious diseases now
1
It is easier to believe in germs once you can actually see them.

Good microscopes allow you to recognise differences between
different organisms, and to learn that the organism is specific to
the particular disease. More powerful microscopes also make it
possible to probe the internal structure of microbes and
understand how they cause infection.
Bacteria start reproducing as soon as they enter the body and

multiply at a steady rate by cell division. As the number of
bacteria in the body increases, the symptoms become worse.
A virus has to enter a cell in the body and use the mechanisms of
the cell to reproduce. Whilst the viruses are growing inside cells
there will be very few symptoms. Once the cell is full of viruses it
bursts. The symptoms of the illness are usually caused by this
sudden cell damage. The viruses go on to invade new cells and
the symptoms subside until the next wave of cells burst.
Semmelwiess observed that childbed fever was spread by doctors

or medical students going directly from one patient to another, or
from the dissecting room to the patients. The medical students did
not become ill but a doctor died from the same symptoms after
cutting himself during dissection. The explanation for these
observations is that the germs from a corpse or an infected person
can be transmitted by contact but only enter the body through
cuts or wounds, common during childbirth.
Snow observed that cholera infection seemed to be spread by
contaminated water. The explanation is that the bacteria are
excreted in the diarrhoea of a sick person. If this is allowed to
contaminate drinking water then the bacteria will be swallowed
and may cause infection.
Page 8
The most straightforward way of showing the causal link would be

to devise an experiment whereby some people were exposed to
the disease by the proposed method of transmission and to then
compare their rate of infection with that of a control group.
However in most cases, this would be totally unethical. This

page 1
technique could be used on animals if there is a species which is

susceptible to the same disease.
The other important method used is to isolate the infectious
organism, to identify this organism in the ill person in every case
of the disease and also in the transmission route. The discovery of
the malaria trypanosomes inside mosquitoes as well as in malaria
patients was a vital step in understanding the transmission of
malaria.
To show that Staphylococcus infections are transmitted in hospital
bedding, it would be necessary to find the same strain of
bacterium in the bedding as in the patient. This by itself might be
due to common cause and it would also be necessary to show that
killing the bacteria in the sheets reduced the transmission rate to
patients.
5
Transmission by living creatures: destruction of habitats of carriers

of disease; eradication programmes with pesticides.
Infection from clothing or bedding: use of disposable alternatives
in hospitals; inspection to ensure high standards of hygiene in the
handling and laundering of fabrics.
Direct skin contact: provision of low cost barrier prevention such
as condoms; access to diagnostic guidance from local pharmacies,
on-line services and primary health care.
Coughs and sneezes: public education along the lines of coughs
and sneezes spread diseases; quarantine programmes in extreme
cases.
Contaminated food and water: water and sewage treatment;
regulation supported by inspection to ensure appropriate high
standards in all places where food is stored, prepared and served.
Infection through cuts: provision of access to first aid and primary
health care; public health education about the risks.
Mass vaccination for all children is compulsory in some European

countries.
It is well known that a few people can opt out of vaccination for
their children without risk of infection as long as the majority,
about 95% are vaccinated. However, if too many people come to
rely on others to take the small risk of vaccination in this way,
infection will spread.
There is an important principle of the need for consent before any
medical procedure is carried out. Compulsory vaccination ignores
the families rights to give or withhold consent.
Page 9


page 1
This issue is discussed in a report from the Nuffield Council on

Bioethics which uses vaccination as one of the case studies to
explore in Public health: the ethical issues. See chapters 2 and 4
in the report which can be downloaded at:
www.nuffieldbioethics.org/go/ourwork/publichealth/publication_45
1.html.
7
Fleming is famous because he was the first person to recognise an

antibiotic and its potential against bacteria and therefore did the
most original work.
Some would argue that Florey and Chain should be given equal
credit because they were the ones who really recognised the
significance of the discovery, and actually developed useful
penicillin production. Others would say that their contribution,
though important, was less original. In 1945 all three received a
Nobel Prize for the work.
8 a) The more often bacteria are exposed to an antibiotic, the more

likely they are to become resistant. Doctors do often prescribe
antibiotics when they are not strictly necessary. Antibiotics are
useless against diseases caused by viruses. Patients expect to get
antibiotics when they are ill whether they need them or not.
b)
The problem of antibiotic resistance was not appreciated when the

drugs first became available. It was very hard to restrict the use of
drugs that were so effective.
c)
If the use of antibiotics were restricted to situations in which they

are absolutely essential, resistance would take much longer to
develop. Prescribing policies of hospitals and primary care centres
could be stricter and more tightly monitored.
TB is airborne therefore close contact increases the rate of

transmission of the disease. Improved housing and working
conditions reduce overcrowding and transmission of TB.
Even with improved housing, it is likely that most people are
exposed to the TB bacterium at sometime. When their nutrition is
good their immune system is usually able to protect them against
the infection and the bacteria will lie dormant in the body. Better
nutrition is therefore one of the most important improvements in
social conditions.
10 The differences between the UK and countries where TB is still

widespread are almost entirely due to income. Many countries of
the world do not have the resources to provide adequate housing
and living conditions. They may be unable to pay for, or organise
an immunisation programme to give BCG to all children. Many of
the people may be too poor to afford an adequate diet.
Page 10


page 1
11 a)
Data on the number of deaths is usually more reliable
because all deaths must be recorded and a cause of death given
on the death certificate. Tuberculosis is a notifiable disease, which
means that doctors have to inform the government of any cases
they diagnose. Notifications are probably fairly accurate except
that not everyone who is ill goes to the doctor. In both cases the
figures will not be 100% reliable, particularly the earlier ones,
because accurate diagnosis of the cause of illness or death is not
always possible.
b) Less crowded living and working conditions, pasteurisation of milk
and control of spitting in public places all reduced transmission of
TB. Improved nutrition meant that even if someone was infected,
they were much less likely to become ill and infect others.
c) All the changes mentioned in (b) above contributed to the decline
in incidence of TB. This was before the introduction of the BCG
vaccine or of any medical cure for TB.
d)
1940 to 1950 is the period during and immediately after the

Second World War (1939 1945). During the war, many people
had to spend time in crowded conditions, in military camps and in
air raid shelters. Because it was difficult to import food, nutrition
standards may have declined.
e) Mass X-ray screening meant that those with TB could be

diagnosed and therefore treated and cured at an earlier stage in
the illness. They would thus infect less other people. The mass Xray programme has ended because there are now so few cases of
TB in the UK that it would detect very few new cases of TB. The
programme is expensive and no longer cost-effective. Nowadays
the same money would contribute more to the health of
population if spent in other ways.
f)
Fig 2.16 shows the drop in notifications between 1915 and 1950
as around 40 000. This indicates just how effective preventive
measures such as reduced crowding and nutrition are.
Between 1950 when both chemotherapy (cure) and BCG
(prevention) were introduced and 1990 the drop is also around 40
000. Cure does reduce notifications because, as mentioned in (e)
above, one persons cure is anothers prevention. On the basis of
figure 2.16 it is hard to be sure whether chemotherapy or BCG is
the more significant in preventing the spread of TB as they were
both introduced around the same time. Other information not
given here shows that overall preventive measures such as BCG
and nutrition are much more effective than curative measures.
12 TB affects people in the 15-54 age range when they are most
economically productive. People with TB have to take months off
Page 11


page 1
work. This means that where TB is common, there are many

people and families that are likely to be poor.
13 Political commitment is important because an effective TB control
programme requires organisation, trained personnel, money, and
the support of the whole population.
14 Patients may find it hard to continue taking the drugs when they
are apparently cured. They need time to collect the drugs, there
may be side effects and they may simply forget. However, to
ensure that the disease will not recur and to reduce the risk of
drug resistance, it is vital that treatment continues. Supervision
does improve compliance with the treatment regime. Surveillance
is an infringement of the rights of the individual in their own best
interests, and in the interests of the wider community. A decision
on this will depend on cultural and political values.
The most desirable outcome would be that people were given
enough scientific understanding and support to be prepared to
continue the treatment voluntarily.
15 a)
As discussed in question 14, people may stop taking the
medicine too soon for a range of reasons. This, and the use of a
single drug rather than a mixture of several anti-TB drugs are the
main reasons why resistance develops.
b)
Worldwide measures which might have prevented resistance

developing are important because diseases spread readily from
one region to another. The World Health Organisation, WHO, has
now drawn on experience from all over the world to devise a
strategy for TB treatment which is designed to reduce the
development of resistance. It provides advice and financial
support to put the strategy into practice. The strategy is given at
the bottom of page 28.
16 Poorly supervised TB treatment might lead to widespread

development of drug resistant strains of TB. For individual
patients, any treatment is still better than no treatment but the
rights of the individual may conflict with those of the society, for
whom drug resistance is the greater danger.
17 In some countries where TB is widespread, there are people
outside the reach of health care agencies. The resources do not
exist to carry out tests on all the people who might have TB. The
problems are discussed in the report on this WHO web page:
http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2008/download_centre/en/inde
x.html
18 Overcrowding in refugee camps. Contact between patients and a

larger total number of people. The long-term treatment may be
Page 12


page 1
interrupted by displacement. Displaced people often find it hard to

get adequate nutrition.
19 Resistance to a disease develops when the immune system is able
to respond quickly to a microbe it recognises from previous
exposure. Influenza is caused by a virus which mutates as it
reproduces in people and in animals, forming different strains. The
virus strain which infects you a few years later may have a
different protein surface from the original infection. The immune
system will not recognise it.
20 a)
Influenza vaccines cannot be prepared more than a few
months before they are needed because they have to be specific
to the particular strain which is in circulation. Mutations in the
influenza virus mean that a vaccine prepared more than a year
earlier would be ineffective because it would only give protection
against an earlier strain. This makes it hard to build up large
stocks of vaccine.
b) and c) When supplies are limited, some form of rationing is
essential. The priorities chosen by the Government mean that
those who are most likely to die as a result of flu, the elderly or
those with chronic lung disease, are protected. Health workers get
protection so that they can look after everyone else.
21 Relevant factors include: intensive farming of poultry and other
birds; people living in close contact with birds; extent of travel by
people between countries and the trade in farm products; limited
research into vaccines; limited availability of antiviral drugs in
many parts of the world.
22 A vaccine has to be specific to the particular form of the virus. So
development of a vaccine cannot start until the virus has been
identified and isolated.
23 One approach is to make vaccination mandatory so that people do
not have any choice. Another approach is public information and
education to maintain awareness of the potential consequences of
an outbreak of the disease. There is an ethical dimension to the
discussion as explained in the report from the Nuffield Council on
Bioethics mentioned in the answer to question 6:
From the first perspective, most people accept vaccines in
situations in which the incidence of a vaccine-preventable disease
is high, the disease is potentially serious and the risks from the
vaccine are proportionately low. The situation is different where
incidence is relatively low, as there may be both statistical and
perceptual changes in the assessments of risks and benefits.
Statistically, where there is fairly high vaccine coverage, the risks
of disease for those who are unvaccinated may decrease (owing to
Page 13


page 1
population immunity) while the risks of vaccination remain. For

example, in the USA, as a result of high levels of vaccination for
measles, the risk of exposure to the disease-causing virus is very
low, while the vaccine used causes fever or rash in around 5% of
cases and very occasionally causes more severe reactions.
Although healthcare professionals consider the risks of such tradeoffs carefully, low incidence of a disease may also affect peoples
perceptions of it. They may view the risks of contracting a
vaccine-preventable disease not to be serious, since they are less
familiar with its symptoms or severity as a result of its low
prevalence (owing to a high level of vaccination coverage), and
may be more likely to refuse vaccination.
24
TB
Influenza
Cause
Infection by a
bacterium
Infection by a virus
How it spreads
When people with the

disease cough, spit,
sneeze or talk
producing droplets
with bacteria in the
air.
Spread in tiny droplets

caused by coughing
and sneezing. People
can become infected
by touching
something
contaminated with the
virus and then
touching their mouth
or nose.
Methods of prevention
Public health
measures to improve
living conditions and
reduce overcrowding.
Healthier people are
less likely to get the
disease. BCG
vaccination which is
only partly effective.
Immunisation
Treatments
Combination
treatment with
antibiotics.
No drug to cure the

disease. Antiviral
drugs can help to
control the
symptoms.
Factors making it
difficult to control
Rapid development of
drug resistance.
Frequent mutations in
the influenza viruses
Page 14


page 1
Needs to sustain
treatment if it is to be
effective. The AIDS
epidemic. HIV makes
people more
vulnerable to TB.
which means that

new vaccines have to
be developed each
year.
Interaction between
animal and human
forms of the disease.
25 Technical feasibility: an effective regime of antibiotics is available

for treating TB whereas antiviral drugs to deal with influenza are
not yet available. Vaccines for influenza are a challenge because
of the frequent mutations that change the characteristics of the
virus.
Benefits expected: the potential or actual economic benefits of
eliminating or reducing TB in the working population are high and
justify very large expenditures on programmes to detect and cure
the disease.
Economic cost: research to develop treatments for diseases that
are prevalent in the poorer parts of the world can be limited by the
lack of an incentive for commercial pharmaceutical companies to
invest.
Risks: the risk and consequences of an influenza pandemic are so
high that some governments are investing substantially in
research into the development of types of vaccine and antiviral
drugs.
Page 15


page 1
Chapter 3 Transport issues
1 a) Elements have atoms of only one kind so hydrogen, oxygen and
carbon are all elements.
b)
Compounds are made up of two or more elements atoms bonded

together, so carbon dioxide and water are both compounds. NOTE:
The atoms do need to be bonded together to form a compound,
otherwise you just have a mixture of atoms.
c)
An atom is the smallest part of an element. Each element has its

own kind of atom. So there are carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms
and oxygen atoms.
d)
A molecule consists of two or more atoms joined together. The

atoms can be the same as in oxygen or different as in water or
hydrocarbons.
e)
A hydrocarbon is a compound made up of just hydrogen and

carbon atoms bonded together.
f)
A chemical reaction is what has happened when atoms and

molecules rearrange themselves to form new substances. Here it
is illustrated by having the hydrocarbon reacting with the oxygen
to form carbon dioxide and water. The number of each type of
atoms is the same after the reaction as before, but the atoms are
arranged differently.
g)
Combustion is a reaction between chemicals and oxygen, resulting

in the release of energy. Here it is the reaction between the
hydrocarbon and oxygen molecules to make carbon dioxide and
water.
Diagram similar to figure 3.4 to show one molecule of propane

reacting with five oxygen molecules to make three carbon dioxide
molecules and four water molecules.
3 a) The energy industries are those which supply electricity and

fuels.
Page 16


page 1
b)
Up to 2005 there was no sign of any start of a significant decline

in emissions. All sectors will have to contribute to change if the
targets are to be met.
4 a) Road freight: from 15 to 22 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent - an

increase of about 47% in emissions.
b)
Air transport: from 20 to 37 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent - an

increase of about 85% in emissions.
Biggest contribution is from air transport which has risen most in

the period but has now started to decline. Next biggest is road
freight which has increased steadily over the period. Public
transports emissions have slowly declined during these years.
The contribution from water transport has fluctuated but not
changed greatly. (Increases in fuel costs in 2008 could have a
significant impact on these figures.)
The energy comes from the Sun.
7 a) Plants take in carbon dioxide and turn it into sugars and other
chemicals by photosynthesis as they grow. In theory, this balances
the carbon dioxide given out when chemicals from plants burn.
b)
Energy is needed to cultivate and harvest plants. More energy is

needed to process plant material and turn it into fuels. Supplying
all this energy involves the use of fuels that give out carbon
dioxide.
c)
There is more intense sunlight in the tropics. Plants such as sugar

cane need less fertiliser and some of the energy for processing the
plant material into fuel can come from burning the dried crop
waste.
Advantages: renewable unlike fossil fuels; reduced emissions of

carbon dioxide; can help to reduce reliance on imported fuel.
Disadvantages: grown on land that could be used to grow food;
may be grown on land made available by destroying tropical
forests.
The key point here is that with a fuel such as gas, the energy
given out when it burns does not disappear but is still around
transferred to other things. Some useful, some not so useful.
Energy transferred to the environment will heat it up, although
only by a tiny amount if taken globally, and some will be radiated
out into space. None is lost, it is just distributed more widely. This
is the principle of conservation of energy.
10 a)
Start with 6500 GJ. First arrow branches off taking 2000 GJ
to produce the fuel rods. Second arrow branches off taking 1000
GJ left in the spent fuel rods. Third arrow branches off showing
Page 17


page 1
2400 GJ thermal energy lost to the surroundings (e.g. from cooling

towers or cooling water) leaving an arrow at the end showing the
supply of 1100 GJ energy as electricity.
Efficiency = (1100 GJ 6500 GJ) 100 % = 17%
b)
11 Suck, squeeze, bang, blow. Note that there is not really such a
process as suck in terms of a vacuum producing suction. What
happens here is that the piston, in moving down, creates a partial
vacuum (low pressure) inside the cylinder. This causes the
atmosphere (high pressure) to push fuel into the cylinder.
12 1 kg is 1000 g. 1 mg is 1/1000 g. So each 1 kg is made up of
1 000 000 mg, hence 1 ppm.
1 mg is just a few grains of salt. You would be unlikely to be able
to taste it.
13 a)
Carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds.
b)
Sulfur dioxide.
c)
Oxides of nitrogen.
14 Nitrogen dioxide is produced as there is plenty of nitrogen,

approximately 78% in fact, in the air. At low temperatures nitrogen
is inert, but at the high temperature in the cylinder of an engine it
can react with oxygen.
15 If the air/fuel ratio is too low then incomplete combustion will take
place leading to the release of carbon monoxide and volatile
organic compounds. Carbon monoxide puts a strain on the heart
in low doses and can be fatal in high doses. Unburnt fuel
contributes to photochemical smog. Having too high an air/fuel
ratio (too much air) results in poor ignition.
16 In Summer the Sun is brighter. It is more intense and so more
effective at splitting up oxides of nitrogen. This leads to the
formation of ozone.
17 Rush hour traffic in the morning releases the chemicals needed to
produce the smog. However, the energy from the sunlight to bring
the reactions about, does not reach its peak until around midday
when the sunlight is most intense.
18 a)
b)
Carbon dioxide is not toxic and does harm local air quality.
Carbon dioxide is a global pollutant contributing to the

greenhouse effect and climate change.
19 The distributions predominantly reflect centres of population and

industry.
Page 18


page 1
20 Emissions of PM10s has declined markedly. There have been

significant declines in all sectors apart from agriculture and waste,
industrial processes and road transport.
21 Nitrogen dioxide near power stations, in large cities, adjacent to
motorways, next to incinerators and steel works.
Carbon monoxide near motorways and in large cities.
22 The commercial, residential and institutional contribution has
fallen the most. The contribution from public power has fallen
significantly too. Factors such as boosting efficiency and reducing
waste bring about a reduction in the usage of fuels and hence of
PM10 emissions. The use of coal in power stations has declined.
Improvements in diesel fuel and the design of diesel engines has
helped to cut the emissions from road transport since the 1980s.
23 1970: 8%
2004: 23 %
24 (a) It could be a one-off high reading caused by a particularly
poorly tuned engine on a lorry, or one taken at a time when few
vehicles are in use (Christmas Day). The wind direction might be
blowing pollutants away from the detector. The extent of pollution
may vary with height above road level.
(b) They can take lots of readings and average them, so reducing
random errors. They can also check the readings with another
instrument and confirm the data if the readings agreed. They can
also check the calibration of the instruments used to ensure that
the readings are accurate.
25 It is likely that the mechanism of sampling would cause the largest
errors due to factors such as:
(i)
the position of the detector having an effect it might be

shielded from pollution or be at a place where air movement is
minimal and so pollution maximised.
(ii) depending on the device used to detect and measure, there

might be absorption of pollutants on the walls of the inlet tube,
or reactions between pollutants en route to the detector.
Analysis of the results is more likely to be mechanised, or through
a standard technique, and so is less likely to produce errors.
26 They would probably be most reliable from a power station which
would come under statutory controls and monitoring. Similarly for
a number of industrial processes where there is potential for
pollution of the environment. Estimates for vehicles with diesel
engines are likely to be the least reliable, varying for different
Page 19


page 1
vehicles, being dependent on age, size, and maintenance and so

on.
27 a)
Graph (b) appears to give a strong correlation as one could
draw a line through the points. Graph (a) has cities H and T offline.
(b) The two graphs do show that there is a strong tendency for the
Death Rate Ratio to increase with increase in the concentration of
particulates.
28 The findings were a potential threat to the energy and transport
industries. The findings could be used as evidence to support
stricter regulation of emissions which some might want to avoid.
29 Monitoring the health of a group of people for 20 years is very
hard to achieve. Keeping track of all the people is difficult. It is
also hard to keep the team of researchers together and to
maintain funding for the research, which is expensive.
30 a) The key point here is that we breathe in from the atmosphere so
what pollutes it has the potential to pollute us. The pollution does
gradually disperse or get washed from the atmosphere by rain but
in city streets it can be contained concentrated so that it reaches
hazardous levels.
b)
The particulates must build up to some extent, then get breathed

in or fall to the ground or into the sea. They have not disappeared.
Similarly the various gases do not disappear, though they may be
absorbed or react to form something else e.g. SO2 and NO2 can
both combine with water and oxygen to form acid rain.
c)
Wind disperses pollutants. Rain washes some pollutants from the

air. High pressure conditions mean little wind and this can trap
pollutants so that they build up to unusually high levels.
31 Looking at the elements involved in figure 3.20 it is seen that

those coming from the engine carbon, oxygen and nitrogen
also emerge into the air but recombined to make new chemicals
that are less harmful to health.
32 The catalyst used in a car exhaust system only works properly
when hot. On a short journey it is unlikely to get hot enough to do
its job properly.
33
Power supply
Advantages
Disadvantages
Petrol engine
Proven technology.
Reliable. Powerful so
fast. Fuel widely
Use of fossil fuel

which is becoming
increasingly
Page 20


page 1
available. Long range.
expensive. Emission
of carbon dioxide.
Electric motor
No emission of air
pollutants by the
vehicle.
Limited range. Limited

power. Charged by
electricity from
conventional power
stations.
Hybrid engine
No emission of air
pollutants by the
vehicle when running
on battery. Benefits as
for petrol engines
outside towns and
cities.
Less fuel-efficient
overall. Expensive
because of the need
for two power sources.
Fuel cell (hydrogen)
No emission of air
pollutants by the
vehicle.
Technology not yet

fully developed. Lack
of widespread supply
of fuel (hydrogen).
Fuel still derived from
fossil fuel.
34 Currently electric vehicles are charged with mains electricity. The

pollution, if any, comes from the power stations. If charged at
night, much of the base load comes from nuclear power. Nuclear
power has relatively low emissions of greenhouse gases. However
the power may also come from gas/oil fired power stations or from
renewables such as wind turbines.
35 a) and b) Many factors reduced the amount of walking and cycling
in this period: the relatively low cost of private transport, the
increased perception of the dangers to pedestrians and cyclists
(especially children), the design of towns and cities to make
motoring easier and walking or cycling less attractive.,
36 This can simply be answered by comparing the lengths of the
horizontal bars for each form of transport in figure 3.24.
a)
Train and bus.
b)
Aeroplane
c)
If the car is carrying more than just its driver.
37 The problem here is that the mass of the driver and passengers is
relatively small compared to that of the car. Most cars have a
mass of around 1000 kg. The average mass of a person might be
around 85 kg. So most of the fuel is being used in moving the car
Page 21


page 1
and not its occupants. Also, much of the power of the engine is
used to overcome the air resistance and rolling resistance of the
tyres as the car travels along.
38 There is an energy cost to creating the materials and
manufacturing any vehicle. It takes a lot of energy to create trains,
buses and aircraft. Therefore having them last longer reduces
their rebuild energy costs and hence their lifetime fuel costs.
39 The smaller and lighter car would need less fuel and so that
should reduce pollution as long as (i) their numbers did not
increase and (ii) their engines were as efficient or more so than
currently.
Having electric cars really moves the source of pollution from
where the vehicle is used to the power station. As most power
stations are built away from towns and cities, this would be
practicable, but it has only replaced petrol/diesel pollution by
other forms coal, oil, nuclear-based until such times as wind,
solar, wave etc. become significant.
40 At the time of writing, there had been a fair amount of protesting
about the high cost of fuel and the taxes on fuel and on cars that
are gas guzzling. Many of those living in country areas without
public transport complain at their specific situation. There is also
resistance to any extension of congestion charging.
Common arguments to not bring in controls might include such
matters as:
They might make the business uneconomic.
They may cause closure or promote redundancies.
Other countries do not have such controls.
They may make the business less competitive.
41 Water is a liquid at room temperature. It is a compound of
hydrogen and oxygen which are both gases. Water does not burn.
Hydrogen burns brightly in oxygen to make water.
Methane (in natural gas) is a colourless gas. It is a compound of
carbon (a black solid) and the gas hydrogen.
42 Motoring harms health (giving out gases that pollute urban air)
and the planet (giving out carbon dioxide that enhances the
greenhouse effect and causes climate change). Motoring uses up
scare resources: the fossil fuel that is a non-renewable resource.
Extracting and processing crude oil to make fuel can cause
environmental pollution at every stage.
Page 22


page 1
43 Mechanical: high pressure in an engine cylinder presses down on

the piston which drives the wheels through the crankshaft.
Thermal: the energy from the hot cylinder transfers to the cooling
water circulation round the engine, then the hotter water is cooled
by cold air flowing through the radiator.
Electrical: the battery supplies the energy to turn the motor which
starts the engine running; the alternator generates the electricity
to provide power to the lights and other electrical components.
Radiation: the hot filaments in the headlamps radiate light to
illuminate the road at night.
44 Widespread use of catalytic converters is probably not a long-term
solution as they do not in fact reduce CO2 emissions at all; indeed
they probably increase them slightly as more fuel is consumed
overall. The solution seems more in finding replacements for fuels
that cause pollution.
Improvements in fuel and in the design of diesel engines are
reducing the emissions of particulates.
Crucial to the argument is the seriousness of the health effects of
particulates and oxides of nitrogen.
45 Benefits widely shared with a minority suffering the ill effects is a
particular problem for air travel because of the noise and pollution
concentrated around airports. In these circumstances, the
interests of the minority can easily be ignored because of the
wider benefits. The situation is not so clear cut with motoring. The
pattern of benefits and harmful effects varies greatly from place to
place depending on how close people live and work to motorways,
flyovers and other places with intense road traffic.
46 a)
There are still arguments about the extent to which urban
air pollution is harmful to health. It is difficult to forecast what
technology might be available to reduce pollution in the future. It
is also difficult to predict what processes might be developed that
one needs to respond to and the extent to which technology could
deal with them. Similarly, it is difficult to forecast the effects of
pollution long-term.
b)
The social difficulties are likely to reflect the wishes and needs of
the population in terms of jobs, personal freedoms and lifestyles.
The political difficulties are in trying to balance what is best for the
nations health and what might keep the party in office. The
economic difficulties would include how tackling air pollution
might affect jobs and profitability.
Page 23


page 1
47 Driving less far might be realistic when employment is more local

or actually working from home. Currently far from all jobs can be
home-based so it is not realistic. Some never will be sales staff
who need to show off goods and discuss matters with potential
buyers.
Possible restrictions might include more limited access to towns
and cities and promotion of Park and Ride schemes. Additional
road tolls, or even a bar on some roads, when not carrying
passengers. Taxing according to the number of miles travelled
higher road fund tax for greater usage. Already, insurance
companies are discussing having higher charges for those that use
their cars the most much like the higher tax suggestion although
for a different reason, namely to reduce their risk.
48 For private cars one could add a tax to petrol or have a variable
road fund tax according to the miles covered. With public
transport the cost could be incorporated in the charge for a ticket.
Why not make the person being moved pay? Should it apply to
doctors, nurses, fire-fighters? Who else might you wish to exempt?
49 a) When choosing an upper limit, the factors to consider involve
the health and environmental effects of the pollution. Also it is
necessary to take into account the various costs of lowering the
limits such as the impact on industries that create wealth and
employment, and the value that people put on easy access to
various forms of transport. Even if the lowering of emissions is
feasible, it can be too expensive to be affordable.
b)
The limits have to take into account the accuracy of the methods
of measurement. They also have to take into account that the cost
of ensuring a total absence of pollutants would be extraordinarily
high or require a very dramatic change in current lifestyles.
50 Policy needs to take into account different interest groups in cities

and in rural areas and consider the concerns of elderly people and
those with physical handicaps or other special needs. A powerful
but popular policy is to raise the cost of transport of all kinds.
Another approach is to shift the balance of investment towards
forms of getting about that do not involve fuels, so favouring
walking and cycling as much as possible. A shift from private to
public transport can cut fuel use. Congestion charging, bus lanes
and investment in new buses and trains can encourage more
people to use public transport. In the longer term, policies can
reduce the need for travel by encouraging people to live nearer to
where they work and by cutting down on the travel for shopping
expeditions and so on.
Page 24


page 1
Chapter 4 Medicines to treat disease
1
Plants vary slightly in their chemical composition. There may be

several chemicals in a plant that are chemically active. Drug
developers need to know which chemical is responsible for any
effect. The results of tests are very hard to interpret if they are
based on mixtures of drugs of uncertain composition.
2 a)
It is generally impossible to create a drug that cures a
patient by interfering only with the natural processes in an
microoganism or in the diseased cells of the patients body. If the
drug has any effect on healthy parts of the body there are likely to
be side effects.
b)
Deciding whether or not a drug is adequately safe is a matter of

judgement which involves weighing up the benefits and making
sure that they outweigh the risks. What counts as adequately safe
is not the same for a drug to treat a common cold and a drug to
treat serious heart disease or cancer. No drug is without risk, but,
through animal and clinical drug trials, the potential risks and
benefits are measured scientifically.
Safety tests to check that the new drug does not harm embryos,
fetuses and babies incuding tests to see if the drug passes
through the placenta to the babys blood stream or gets into the
mothers milk.
4 a) and b) Some interactions between drugs and chemical reactions

in cells are specific to a particular species, and even to individuals
within that species. Animal models and computer modelling can
give useful predications of efficacy and safety, but can never
predict the full potential interactions between drugs and the
human body.
5 a) Phase II trials normally test the drugs on healthy volunteers so it
does these people no harm to be given a placebo. Patients
involved at this stage have given their consent to taking part in
this phase of the testing. Testing is small scale and short term.
Page 25


page 1
b)
Phase III trials are carried out with large numbers of patients who
are ill and need treatment. It would not be right not to give them
any treatment as part of an experiment. At this stage the aim is to
confirm that the dose levels are right and that there are no
undetected side-effects.
c)
When there is no known effective treatment available.
Where the disease is minor.
6 a) In this phase the whole population is made up of all the people
with the disease that the new medicine is designed to treat or
cure.
b)
Doctors are likely to be more aware of patients with are more

severely ill so that they have sought treatment or gone to
hospital. Some people with the disease may not have seen a
nurse or doctor. They may have sought help anonymously on-line
or from NHS Direct. Also some patients, or their relatives may be
unwilling for them to take part in a trial.
The efficacy of the active drug's treatment is the due to its active
ingredients plus any effects of treatment (e.g. placebo effect). The
effect of treatment by the drug is the difference between the
active and the natural history groups. This can be compared with
the efficacy of the treatment process alone: the difference
between the placebo group and the natural history group. This is a
measure of the placebo effect. The effect of the drugs active
ingredient is the difference between the active and the placebo
group. The use of a natural history groups allows the entire
treatment process to be compared with the magnitude of the
placebo effect.
8 a) Regulation is intended to ensure that the makers of medicines

and doctors do not sell or prescribe drugs that are ineffective or
harmful. Regulation in the UK is also aimed at ensuring that the
NHS gets good value from the medicines it buys.
b)
Regulators have to take into account: the results of drug trials

showing the benefits of the drug in relation to any known side
effects, the benefits to patients compared to other treatments (if
any), the cost of the drug.
c)
The MHRA assesses the efficacy and safety of new drugs. NICE
carries out cost-benefit analyses to see if a new drug provides
sufficient value to patients to justify its costs.
Page 26


page 1
Some rare side effects may not become apparent until a drug has
been prescribed on a large scale. At this stage is it not in the
interest of the pharmaceutical company for side effects to become
an issue. This makes it important that there is an independent
system for collecting information about side effects from all
available sources.
10 Your answer to this question depends on your experience and the

people you know, if any, that have tried complementary medicine.
11 Your attitude to regulation might be affected by your view on the
effectiveness on the medicines. Arguably, the more effective a
medicine, the more important that it is regulated to ensure that it
is not harmful and does not interact in a dangerous way with other
treatments. You could also argue that the public should be
protected by regulation from medicines that are ineffective.
People who very ill can be so desperate that they waste their
money of medicines that are ineffective or harmful.
12 Some (not all) people with allergies turn to complementary
therapies as a result of dissatisfaction with conventional medicine
and because increasing numbers of people and reports say that
complementary medicine works. There are those who would argue
that this is not only wise but scientific - having rejected one
paradigm or theory (conventional medicine), the person switches
to another. Others, though, would maintain that there is little good
evidence that complementary therapies work and that some such
treatments may be harmful.
13 Scientists value evidence about drugs the comes from systematic,
epidemiological studies where the results have been published in
peer reviewed journals, replicated by others and subjected to
sustained critical assessment.
14 Complementary medicine is intended to work alongside
conventional medicine, whereas alternative medicine can replace
conventional approaches.
15 Complementary treatments may involve a relationship between
the doctor and patient which means that it not possible for the
whole process to be subject to a double-blind study.
Where the alternative is a treatment, both patient and doctor
inevitably know whether or not they are receiving the
complementary treatment (e.g. acupuncture) or the placebo (e.g.
relaxing massage).
16 Setting up a regulatory system is expensive. It is only worth doing
if it is demonstrably necessary to protect the public from harmful
effects of incompetent/unscrupulous practitioners of hazardous
Page 27


page 1
treatments. With conventional medicine the powerful effect of

medicines, the scale of use and their overall cost means that
regulation is judged to be necessary. Our society has judged that
regulation is largely unnecessary for most alternatives while only
limited amounts of public money are spent of complementary
medicines.
17 Bias arises if the people who agree to take part in the trial are all
particularly disposed towards the treatment and if those who drop
out of the trial are consistently those who are in some way
unhappy or uncomfortable with the treatment. People may drop
out or refuse to take part due to illness, and this could make it less
likely that the results identify capture people suffering effects of
the risk factor.
18 Toxicity testing with animals is used to determine the minimum
single dose that can kill; also the dose which, if taken repeatedly
can lead to serious of even fatal results. These, and other results
are used to determine the dose to use in the first stages of clinical
trials. Clearly it is very important to get the results right to avoid
harming the volunteers involved in phase I trials. The approach
has to be systematic so that the work can be replicated if
necessary. Also all observations and measurements have to be
carefully documented so that the outcomes of administering a
drug can be related to the size of dose given. If, at any stage,
things go wrong, the recorded evidence can be used to show
whether or not the procedures have been carried out according to
approved protocols. This could be particularly important if
unforeseen outcomes lead to a legal challenge for damages in the
courts.
19 Experience has shown that no animal trials can ever fully predict
reactions to drugs in humans. Even so most people would consider
it irresponsible not to carry out animal studies before human trials,
as these studies can indicate toxicity and efficacy in many cases.
At a cellular level the processes of respiration, growth and cell
division are very similar in all animals but there are many
differences in the way that cells are organised from one species to
another. Also the body organs have different relative sizes in
different animals, and the way chemicals are taken up and
eliminated from the body varies between species.
20 a)
Systematic sampling is important to ensure that the
sample is representative of the whole population of people that
might be treated with a medicine.
b)
Randomisation in the selection of participants to test and control

samples is very important to avoid bias. Randomisation helps to
Page 28


page 1
ensure that both types of sample are representative of age,

gender, ethnic origin, social class, life style and so on.
c)
The larger the sample size the less likely it is that the results will
be affected by random variations. With a larger sample it is more
likely that results will be statistically significant. However there are
practical limits to the size of samples used for medical research.
These limits may be imposed by cost, the possibility of recruiting
participants to the study and the feasibility in keeping in contact
with a large group of people.
d)
Research designs such as cohort studies and case-control studies

include control groups. The control group usually receives a
placebo or the standard treatment so that the effects of the
medicine on the test group can be compared with a comparable
group of people who have not received the new treatment.
21 Possible questions to consider:

Who has done this research and where do they work?
Who do the researchers work for and might there be any conflicts
of interest?
How big was the study and were what type of research design
was used?
Has the research been published and if so where?
Have other expected reviewed and commented on the findings?
Have the findings been replicated?
Who has provided this report is it from an independent
journalist or from someone with an interest of some kind in the
findings?
22 a)
The processes of developing new medicines involve testing
on animals and humans in ways that could be open to abuse if not
carefully regulated. Powerful interests are involved in the
discovery, production, marketing and prescription of new
medicines. The sums of money involved, the reputations of health
practitioners and the deep worries of sick people mean that there
is considerable scope for misreporting and for the misuse of the
resources available for health care. Also the consequences of
mistakes can be very serious for both those who provide
treatments and for patients. There are differences in status
between doctors working on different specialism and some
patients are, for various reasons, in a better position to get the
benefits of new treatments than others. So this is such an
intensely political field that governments see the need to regulate.
Page 29


page 1
b)
They have to take into account the efficacy and safety of the
medicine as shown by all stages of clinical trials to see if the drug
should be used at all. If the drug passes the initial tests, the
regulators then have to carry out a cost-benefit analysis to see if
the new treatment gives value for money in comparison with
alternative treatments, or alternative uses of the resources for
other kinds of health care.
Page 30


page 1
Chapter 5 Ethical issues in medicine
1
The answer depends on your point of view. You might reflect on

whether or not your opinion is affected to any extent by learning
more about the development of drugs and the ways that animals
are used in research. The important skill here is being able to
recognise where your own ethical arguments fit with the different
ethical frameworks that exist.
The organisation defending the use of animals in research is

essentially using a utilitarian argument.
The animal welfare group is weighing up the rights of animals
against the rights of humans while giving greater priority to
human rights.
The antivivisectionists put priority on the rights of animals;
asserting that it is unjust to experiment with animals and at the
same time making the utilitarian point that the tests are of no
value because the results with animals do not contribute
meaningful results when it comes to the treatment of humans.
In planning research experts may be competent to judge whether

the design of the research is one which will answer the question
posed taking into account all the technical issues.
However there are two further questions which must be addressed
and these are not medical or technical issues. The first is one of
cost-effectiveness. If resources are limited should public money be
spent on this problem rather than on some other need?
The second is a question of ethics. If the patient is likely to suffer
some pain or other side-effects in taking part is this justified for
the greater good? Is it possible to gain informed consent, what
about research on small children? For the cost-effectiveness and
ethical issues, which affect the whole society, it is important that
those not involved in the work evaluate the issues and represent
the views of a wider cross-section of the population. They may see
the priorities differently from those who are committed to the
research.
Page 31


page 1
It is necessary that medicines are tested on healthy people so that

side effects are clear and distinguished from the symptoms of the
disease being treated. If people are to give up time and possibly
take risks they should be paid. However payment means that
some people may volunteer for the wrong reasons. The two
groups who most commonly volunteer are prisoners and students.
One approach is for the agencies that buy medicines, such as the
NHS, to use their purchasing power by restrict their choice of
drugs that have been tested under conditions that respect the
rights of the participants in trials. Another approach is for
international agencies linked to the United Nations to check up on
drug trials by the big pharmaceutical companies. Investigative
journalists can study the issue and alert the public and politicians
to the issue through their reporting.
6 a) Pharmaceutical companies may have little commercial incentive

to develop drugs for diseases that are more common in
developing countries, where the economic situation does not allow
a profitable return on medicines sold.
Generic drugs produced by developing countries under license
from the drug companies risk these cheaper versions (illegally)
being made available outside the country with the licence,
reducing profits for the company.
b)
Large charitable foundations can intervene and give grants to

support the research into treatments for diseases that it would not
be commercially viable for industrial companies to fund. Similarly
government aid programmes could support research of this kind.
7 a) Similarities: the people affected have limited political influence;

income from sales is not large enough to fund research; incentives
are needed to fund the research.
b)
Differences: the diseases in developing countries may affect a

large number of people, but the lack of market is due to the
countrys economics. Orphan drugs are for diseases which only
affect a small minority of people. The lack of market is due to
small numbers.
8 a) Clearly sub-standard or ineffective drugs do no good to the

patient. With some infectious diseases they may help to increase
the problem of drug-resistance. They are a threat to programmes
designed to eradicate infectious diseases.
b)
The drugs in question are likely to be widely used because they

are cheap and indeed may be the only drugs available.
Governments can help by negotiating with pharmaceutical
companies to make available reliable drugs at affordable prices.
Page 32


page 1
The genetic material in the cells of the cloned embryo comes from
the body cell. The donated egg has all its genetic material
removed before nuclear transfer takes place. The parent of the
clone is therefore the donor of the body cell.
10 Parkinsons disease and diabetes are conditions which arise

because specialized cells in the body have ceased to produce the
chemicals needed for normal health. The hope is that it will be
possible to use stem cells to replace the cells that have been
damaged or destroyed.
11 If scientists can find what triggers stem cells to specialise into
different tissues, it is possible that, in the future, adult tissue stem
cells could be used for therapeutic cloning in place of embryonic
stem cells.
12 While there are serious doubts about the possible effects of stem
cells in the body, the risks are not balanced by the potential
benefits unless the patient is suffering from a life-threatening
disease.
13 Pharmaceutical companies are businesses that need to make
money through selling drugs. Their brochures cannot contain
misleading material, but they may emphasise positive features
and data over the less positive. Articles in peer reviewed journals
are more likely to be critical, to point out any flaws in methods
used to collect data, or in interpretation of the data.
14 Some people would argue that use of embryos in research is
wrong, no matter what the circumstances, on the basis that the
embryo has rights.
A utilitarian might argue that using discarded embryos brings
about less harm than creating embryos for the purpose of
research. Whether either is morally acceptable is a matter of
whether the total good coming from the research outbalances the
harm to the embryos.
15 Research on nuclear transfer in humans could, in principle, lead to
human reproductive cloning. An embryo created by nuclear
transfer may have the potential to develop normally if implanted
in a uterus. Some people argue that technology which is open to
such abuse should not be licensed.
Other ethical issues include the informed consent of the egg and
body cell donors, and any harm that may come to women who are
treated to produce multiple eggs for donation.
16 A 14 day human embryo is not recognizably human, or even
recognizably animal. It is just a tiny group of cells which is about
the size of a typical printed bullet point.
Page 33


page 1
17 Before 14 days there is no possibility of the embryo suffering by

any definition. There is not even a rudimentary nervous system in
place. This is also the time up to which twinning is possible, so up
to 14 days it could be argued that the embryo is not necessarily
an individual. (It would be ideal to use quotes from e.g. the
Warnock report in this answer).
18 The issues here are mainly to do with informed consent;
permission would need to be given for any type of future research,
and to use the genetic line to create cell lines or embryos for
research or therapies. As future types of research are unknown,
people would be giving consent for unknown actions.
Review questions
19 Ethical questions relate to values, they ask questions about
whether or not things should be allowed to happen, and weigh up
the risks and benefits for individuals and society (Should it be
done?). Science gathers data through observation and experiment
and seeks explanatory theories to account for patterns in data.
Scientific knowledge explores what is possible (Can it be done?).
Scientific data can be used to provide information about risks and
benefits which can inform ethical arguments but not provide the
final answers to questions that are not scientific.
20 a)
A doctor might not want to avoid telling a patient that they
have a terminal illness such as cancer. Also a doctor might want to
delay telling the mother of a baby that there are signs which
suggest that there is something seriously wrong with the baby.
b)
A doctor has to judge a situation, and decide how much

information a patient will benefit from. In some cases, the truth
about a patients condition may not be certain, and the way the
truth is delivered often changes the way it is received. Some
patients express the wish not to know the truth, and this is
considered a right. Telling the truth to patients is part of
respecting them and allowing them autonomy. Patients have a
right to informed consent, and this must include disclosure of any
information condition or treatment they are involved in. Studies
have shown better recovery rates or pain relief in patients who
were given information about their condition and treatment.
It is difficult to imagine a situation where lying would be an ethical
option, but if the truth may cause distress or harm, this has to be
taken into account when considering timing, support and
counselling of patients who have received bad news.
21 The egg involved in nuclear transfer has no nucleus, so none of

the genetic material found in chromosomes. The resulting cell and
future embryo only has nuclear genetic material from one parent.
Page 34


page 1
This material comes from a donor body cell, so the embryos

genetic parent is the body cell donor.
Page 35


page 1
Chapter 6 Reproductive choices
1
Otherwise the amount of genetic material in each body cell in

each generation would double, since each generation starts with
the fusion of two sex cells to form the fertilised egg (the first body
cell) from which an individual develops.
There are several forms of gene responsible for CF. There is one
normal form and several forms that are faulty. The child inherits
one version of the gene from the mother and another form from
the father. Only one of the two inherited forms of the gene need
be normal for the child to avoid CF. A carrier has one normal form
and one faulty form of the gene. A person who is healthy and not
a carrier has two normal versions of the gene. In the family in
question, one parent has two normal versions of the gene and so
any child will have at least one normal form and so cannot be
affected by CF.
One in 25 people, in a white population, carry the faulty gene. The

chance that both parents will be carriers is 1 in 625. Only 1 in 4
children inherit two recessive versions of the gene and get CF. So
that is 1 in 2500.
If the baby lives to old age there is a probability of 50% (i.e. 0.5,
equals a half) that it will develop Huntingdon's disease. Babies
themselves are never affected by Huntingdon's disease as it only
develops in adulthood.
Many people prefer to enjoy the years of healthy life in ignorance

of any inherited certainty that they will suffer from the disease in
middle age. Once one family member knows their genetic status
in relation to Huntingdons, this affects all their offspring
whether a positive or negative result. This responsibility to future
generations is what drives some people to discover whether or not
they have the Huntingdons gene, but other people find the
responsibility of passing on the news to young children or
teenagers difficult to bear.
6 a) If your relative who has heart disease is a woman this

information predicts that your own risk of heart disease is nearly
Page 36


page 1
three times the average. If your relative with heart disease is a

man then this indicates that your own risk is not quite as high at 2
to 2.5 times the average. (In either case your risk is higher if you
are male than if you are female).
b)
The effect is quite marked whether the relative with heart disease
is male or female so it is unlikely to be directly sex-linked. More
details of the exact pattern of inheritance would be required
before reaching any conclusions.
7
tumour a growth or swelling formed from abnormal division of
cells.
benign the growth may cause damage if it gets too large, but
will not spread to other parts of the body.
malignant the tumour is capable of spreading to other parts of
the body where further cancerous growths might occur.

8
Normal body cell
Cancerous cell
Processes in the
cytoplasm
Respiration and other

processes happen as
normal
Respiration and other

processes happen as
normal
Extent of
differentiation
Differentiated into
skin, nerve, muscles
and other cells
Undifferentiated
Genetic material in
the nucleus
The DNA is largely as

inherited. This may
include genes that
predispose
individuals to
particular cancers
DNA largely the same

as other cells but
with a number of
additional mutations
Cell division
Some cells do not

divide at all, others
divide in a controlled
way to replace cells
lost by wear and
injury
Uncontrolled cell
division gives rise to
a growth of
undifferentiated
cancer cells.
Tendency to break
away and spread to
other parts of the
body
No tendency to
spread to parts of the
body where they
should not be found
Tendency to spread
and form further
colonies of abnormal
cells in other parts of
the body.
Page 37


page 1
9 a) The absence of error bars on the chart means that it is not

possible to decide if the differences between the cancer rates for
the various groups of people is statistically significant. However
the much higher death rates between the native Americans on the
one hand and the white and African American populations on the
other does suggest that different ethnic groups differ in their
tendency to develop breast cancer.
b)
The observed differences in incidence and mortality of breast

cancer between the different ethnic groups could be due to
differences in many cultural and environmental factors including:
lifestyle including diet
socio-economic group
awareness and uptake of screening
attitudes to health and use of heath services.
All these factors could affect risk of breast cancer, and the
different ethnic groups may have different degrees of tendency for
one or more of these indirect risk factors.
10 a)
If the human fetus has a right to life, it can be argued that
those responsible for its welfare have a duty to ensure that it lives
and lives well. This might mean that a pregnant woman has a duty
not to smoke cigarettes, consume large amounts of alcohol or
undertake other potentially harmful activities. Similarly, the
woman, the father, medical practitioners and society in general
can be argued to have a duty to ensure that the woman and her
unborn baby receive enough food, have decent housing, access to
medical care and so on.
b)
This can arise if the growing fetus is, in someway, a threat to the
health and wellbeing, or even survival, of the mother. In these
circumstances the womens partner and family should be involved
in the discussions as well as doctors.
The 1967 Abortion Act says that, subject to the agreement of two
doctors, abortion is legal up to the 24th week if the continuance of
the pregnancy would damage the physical or mental health of the
pregnant woman or the continuance of the pregnancy would injure
the physical or mental health of her existing family. Abortion is
allowed after 24 weeks gestation if the pregnancy represents a
risk to the woman's life, or grave, permanent injury to her health,
or if there is substantial risk of serious fetal abnormality.
Page 38


page 1
11 A false positive is when a test gives the result 'positive' when, in

reality, it should have given 'negative'. Similarly, a false negative
is when a test gives the result 'negative' when, in reality, it should
have given 'positive'.
12 a) Number of false positives is 9990.
b)
Number of false negatives is 5. (In reality, it is impossible to have

a false negative as high as 5% for a condition that only affects
0.1% of individuals.)
c)
No absolute answer can be given. It depends on the severity of

the condition and what happens to individuals identified as having
the condition - for example, whether they are aborted (as happens
with some genetic conditions) or given a special diet once they
are born (as happens with some other genetic conditions).
d)
A false negative means that the baby is not thought to be affected

by the condition detected by the test. The baby is in fact affected
and the consequence is that the baby or the mother misses out on
necessary and appropriate treatments.
e)
A false positive at the very least creates anxiety for the parents.
More seriously the baby might be given a treatment that could be
harmful. At worst the outcome is an unnecessary abortion that
kills a healthy baby.
f)
Again, the answer depends on the severity of the condition and

the consequences of any treatments or actions that are based on
the test.
13 Because no test is 100% reliable and it is best to consider the

possibility that the result it gives may be false. Understanding the
interpretation of test results is part of being able to give informed
consent for the test.
14 Ethical issues might include:
Potential harm to the fetus through carrying out the test.
Attitudes to disability.
Rights of the mother versus rights of the fetus (if abortion is
being considered).
Duty of care to the fetus as a result of the fetus rights on the
part of the parents and family, medics and wider society.
Informed consent when agreeing to the tests which includes
understanding the implications of positive and negative results,
and the possibility of false positives and false negatives.
Ethical frameworks:
Page 39


page 1
Utilitarian approaches migth advocate the reduction of genetic

diseases in the population through screening and abortion.
Rights and duties could refer to the fetus, parents, mother alone
or other members of society.
Autonomy would address issues of informed consent in relation
to the tests.
Issues of justice would involve exploring whether all groups in
society have similar access to information and services.
15 The chances of a carrier meeting a partner with the same faulty
allele is rare, so youd only expect to see a recessive disease
appearing in one generation.
16 Two cousins have married. The likelihood of close family members
carrying the same recessive alleles means recessive conditions
are likely to appear much more frequently where families intermarry.
17 Gene therapy involving sex cells affects any offspring and the
genetic changes will be carried over to the body cells of any
descendants of the person treated. Gene therapy for body cells
has the potential to relieve the symptoms of a sufferer, but the
changes to DNA will not affect the next generation.
18 Although there are common ethical arguments both for and
against gene therapy involving body cells and gene therapy
involving body cells, there are ethical considerations that differ. In
particular, gene therapy involving sex cells has consequences that
are longer lasting and affect future individuals unable to give their
consent to the treatment. Sex-cell gene therapy could make the
way for designer babies, raising issues about the sort of qualities
we value in human beings.
19 a)
Individuals and families benefit from knowing more about
their health risks so that they can make life-style changes or seek
early diagnosis and treatment to make it less likely that they
become seriously ill. In time there may be drugs designed to treat
people with a specific genetic make-up.
b)
Disadvantages for the family are a possible increase of anxiety, or

even fear, especially if no treatment is available for the disease in
question. Another disadvantage is that the information could be
used by the health service to ration treatment to those more likely
to benefit; also insurance companies might refuse to provide life
insurance or raise the premiums for those with particular genetic
predispositions. Some people might find themselves
unemployable as a result of the results of genetic tests.
Page 40


page 1
20 a)
A potential benefit for society is that the total burden of
health might be reduced and the resources of the health service
might be used more effectively.
b)
Equally greater knowledge on the part of individuals and families

might substantially increase the demand for expensive
treatments. Also there is significant cost to screening
programmes. Screening increases the need for advice and
counselling services to explain the results to people.
21 a)
People act autonomously if they are able to make their own
informed decisions and put them into effect.
b)
A screening programme for the population most likely to be

affected by the disease increase the autonomy of individuals by
giving the information they need to decide whether or not to get
married and then whether or not to have children. In the Jewish
community in question individuals have the support of rabbis and
other members of the community to help them come to terms
with the results of genetic tests that show that they carriers. The
tests are manageable and affordable because of the relatively
small number of people involved.
22 There is no treatment for Huntingdon's disease. Screening is

offered to individuals at risk.
23 Justice suggests that if a genetic test is available it should be
available to all whatever their means. Testing the whole
population with an expensive test would draw resources away
from other aspects of the health service which can only be
justified if the results of the tests can lead to comparable benefits.
The money available for health care will never be enough to meet
the growing demand and so difficult decisions have to be made. A
possible issue with an expensive test is that it may be restricted to
those who can afford to pay.
24 The 1 in 4 chance is the same for each child (like the 1 in 2 chance
of getting heads when tossing a coin) the probability is averaged
on large numbers of babies. So the answers are:
No
No
No
Yes
No
25 a)
The answer to this depends on peoples opinion about the
importance of trust in a relationship, and whether couples have a
Page 41


page 1
right to information that is available about their partner that may

affect their offspring.
b)
There are some jobs, such as being an airline pilot, for which is
particularly important to recruit fit and healthy people. Excluding
people from these jobs if they suffer from well-understood singlegene disorders could well be justified. The understanding of the
genetics of multifactorial diseases will have to be much improved
before less specific genetic indications could fairly be used to
exclude people from jobs..
c)
Mental illness is a disability in the same way as other physical

conditions, and people should not be discriminated on such
grounds. By law, there are some jobs where medical criteria for
employment can be defined. This is very different from
discrimination on the grounds of a risk of an illness. Long term
scientific investigations are team efforts and it would be normal
for the composition of the team to change during the life of the
project. Here seems no justification for excluding someone who
might have the potential to do excellent work for 20 years or
more.
26 The test is virtually risk-free for the fetus and mother, so high risk
individuals can be identified for consideration of the further tests.
This reduces the number of pregnancies at risk from
amniocentesis and CVS.
27 It could be argued that a just system would mean everyone had
equal access to a process which decides whether or not the tests
are relevant to them. Justice could mean everyone has equal
information and support to help them decide. Justice need not
mean everyone has access to all tests, because the health service
may then not be able to offer tests to individuals who are most at
risk. Currently, access is unequal across different geographic
regions, and often people who can pay for tests have more access.
Page 42


page 1
Chapter 7 Radiation: risks and uses
1
Any three sources such as those illustrated in figure 7.2. Examples

include visible light from a light bulb, infrared radiation from any
sort of heater and gamma rays from a radioactive element.
2 a) Infrared radiation
b)
Possibilities include:
Radiowaves for radio broadcasting
Microwaves in telecommunications
Visible light in many kinds of signalling
3 a) Young people are still growing so they have a higher level of cell
division than older people. If the radiation disrupts cell division
this is more likely to be harmful for younger people. Also if some
of the biological effects are delayed, young people have longer to
live and so are more likely to be affected in time.
b)
It is unethical to experiment on children in ways that might affect

their health and well being. However, with suitable safeguards
about data protection, it is permitted to collected data about the
way a sample of children use mobile phones and to monitor their
health over a period of time.
c)
The advice should recommend parents not to allow unrestricted

and unlimited use of mobile phones. The advice should explain the
reasons, emphasising the lack of definitive scientific evidence
about possible harmful effects and the reasons why the possible
harmful effects are more likely to arise in younger people.
The precautionary principle applies when there is uncertainty

about the extent to which is technology is harmful. The principle
does not mean that the technology should not be used but that
steps should be taken to limit practices for which there might, in
time, be much more definite scientific evidence about the level of
risk.
5 a) Research question: Is there a link between the occurrence of

acoustic neuroma and the number of years of mobile phone use?
Page 43


page 1
b)
Case control study.
6 a) Wide range of possible responses along these lines: Cancer risk

from mobiles very low.
b)
Wide range of possible responses along these lines: Mobile

phones will kill you in the end; High cancer risk from mobiles
after 10 years.
Cancers arise in cells with stages mutations or other damage to

DNA (see box on page 129). If there is time for repair to DNA, then
cancer is less likely to develop. Disrupting the repair processes
increases the chance that a cell will go through the stages that
lead to cancer.
8 a) You can find information about the risks from mobile phones at
the web site of Mobile Telecommunications and Health Research
Programme. http://www.mthr.org.uk/
There is advice on this issue at NHS Direct with a number of useful
links:
http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/articles/article.aspx?ArticleID=407
The issue is covered by the BBC. Search the BBC web site with the
terms: mobile phone safety. See for example:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6991150.stm
www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/shouldiworryabout/mobiles
.shtml
b)
The answer here depends on your point of view. The web sites
listed under (a) show you what is known now and what are the
main areas of uncertainty.
c)
Ideally one would like to compare results for populations with and
without access to mobile phones but being of similar genetic
make-up, lifestyle, eating habits and so on.
For the high voltage power lines the magnetic field varies between
0.5 T and 8 T, and for household appliances between 0.01 T
and 20 T.
10 If these magnetic fields are having an adverse influence then

keeping the high voltage power lines 25 m or more from houses
seems wise in order to bring levels down to those of an average
household appliance. However, considering that most household
appliances are only for short periods of time, maybe one should
double, treble or even quadruple the distance away. As is
common, the decision depends on your belief in the data
available.
Page 44


page 1
11 Ratio of cases to controls with larger magnetic fields is 1 in 6.57

and 1 in 17.59 for smaller fields. This reveals a ratio 2.68 times as
great for the larger fields.
12 Scientists took the Swedish study seriously because of the care
with which they chose their samples, the information collected,
and the size of the study.
13 The Swedish study was exploring the possible harm to children
from magnetic fields of varying strengths without proposing a
particular mechanism to account for the effect. The Bristol study
was exploring the theory that the effect of the fields is to ionise
the air and concentrate pollutants that children breathe in.
14 The pollutants concentrated in the ionised air would tend to drift
down-wind. One might expect the effect on the health of children
to be greater on the down-wind side of powerlines.
15 a)
A relative risk shows the extent to which the risk of disease
for one group of people (in this case children living near power
lines) if greater than the risk for a comparable group of other
people not affects by the factor in question (in this case
comparable children not living near power lines).
b)
Confidence limits are the limits around an experimental mean

value within which there is a high probability that the true mean
lies. There is a 95% probability that the true mean lies within the
95% confidence interval (which is calculated from the standard
deviation for the data).
16 The results for the Swedish study cover children living within 300
metres of power lines but they then estimate the strength of the
fields to which the children had been exposed. The English study
looks at two groups according to their distance from the power
lines: those living with 200 metres and those living within 600
metre. Both studies looked at leukaemia cases. The English study
found an effect at much lower field strengths than were explored
in the Swedish study.
17 There are some interesting web sites on this topic, some showing
a particular bias or vested interest, but not all.
The BBC carried a report on the study by scientists at Oxford
published in 2005 and there is a number of links to related reports
on the web page.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4602315.stm
REVOLT The Radon Effect in Magnetic Fields
http://www.revolt.co.uk/radon1.html
Page 45


page 1
The Health Protection Agency offers information about electricity

sub-stations and power lines.
http://www.hpa.org.uk/webw/HPAweb&Page&HPAwebAutoListNam
e/Page/1158934607796?p=1158934607796
With the limited evidence you have been presented with it is
beginning to look as if living near high voltage power lines might
well increase risk and, with a causal mechanism having been
proposed (although not universally accepted) the links appear to
be getting stronger. However, one could really do with comparing
data collected from a population not having power lines nearby,
having a similar genetic make-up, diet and so on.
18 People are more willing to accept risks they choose themselves.
People are more willing to accept risks when they also gain a real
benefit.
Risks which affect a large number of people at one time arouse
more concern than those which happen on a regular basis.
The media has great influence over peoples perception of risk.
a)
Possible examples: sport especially extreme sports such as rock

climbing, smoking, motor cycling, binge drinking, UV radiation
from sunbathing
b)
Possible examples: pesticide residues in food, radiation from

radioactive wastes, food made from GM crops.
19 a)
b)
5.2 per cent
0.35 per cent.
20 People are generally more willing to accept voluntary risks and be

more unhappy about risks that they have little or no choice about.
This may lead them to underestimate the risks of things they
choose to do (such as smoking) while overestimating involuntary
risks (such as exposure to cigarette smoke from others).
21 No activity can ever be entirely free of risk. Where they have a
choice, people can choose the risks which are acceptable to them.
Local or national governments have to make decisions about the
level of risk which is acceptable in the society; for example when
setting sped limits or deciding on the safety systems to be fitted
to trains.
22 Cohort studies are expensive to carry out. It is hard to ensure that
participants selected for the study do not drop out and it takes a
long time to collect useful data. (See page 62 in the textbook.)
Page 46


page 1
23 The procedure is illustrated by figure 4.18 on page 62 in the

textbook. Members of the treatment group take 3 g vitamin C a
day while the members of the control group do not.
24 The procedure for a case-control study is described on pages 84
85 in the textbook. The study would be based on one group of
people diagnosed as stressed according to agreed criteria and a
control group of people that are not stressed by these criteria.
Both groups would include some who keep pets and some who do
not. The prior lifestyles and experiences of these people would
then be compared to identify possible risk factors for stress, and
factors (including pet keeping) that reduce stress.
25 a) It would be necessary to toss them both very many times to
show that the difference is significant. The more times they were
tossed and the greater the differences between the two sets of
data, the more convincing the evidence.
b)
Even if they were tossed many times it is likely that there would
still be a small difference in the frequencies of heads and tails.
This might be due to a very small bias or to chance. It is very hard
to prove a negative.
26 a)
The report refers to the experience of one teacher who has
only been exposed to Wi-Fi for a short time. It could just be a
coincidence that the symptoms started at the same time as the
Wi-Fi was switched on and that they had some other cause.
The Health Protection Agency offers advice about Wireless Local
Area Networks.
http://www.hpa.org.uk/webw/HPAweb&Page&HPAwebAutoListNam
e/Page/1158934607791?p=1158934607791
b)
There is no doubt now about the health risks of asbestos but there
is a long time gap between exposure to asbestos and the
development of lung disease. In the case of the teacher the onset
of symptoms from Wi-Fi was immediate. So the comparison is not
strictly accurate. Nevertheless it could be that there are long-term
effects of Wi-Fi which will not be clearly established until many
people have been exposed to the radiation for many years.
27 a)
(i) To be carbon atoms, the nuclei must have six protons, so
carbon-12 must have six neutrons and carbon-14 eight neutrons.
(ii) To be uranium atoms the nuclei must have ninety-two protons.
So Uranium-235 must have one hundred and forty-three neutrons
and Uranium-238 one hundred and forty-six neutrons.
b)
They are isotopes as they have differing numbers of neutrons in

their nuclei but are the same element. Isotope comes from the
Page 47


page 1
Greek words iso meaning same, and topos meaning place:

hence same place in the Periodic Table of Elements.
28 It gives off radiation in the form of a beta particle together with an
anti-neutrino. One of its neutrons changes into a proton.
29 The consequences of infection during surgery are serious and the
risk is relatively high. Irradiation does not cause chemical changes
to instruments. The benefits are clear so long as irradiation is
effective.
Irradiation of food can cause changes to the molecules in food that
affect its flavour. Irradiation could, conceivable, create harmful byproducts in food. Irradiation could be used to cover up for food
that has been contaminated by carelessness or inappropriate
storage. There is justification, at least in some instances, of being
suspicious of the use of irradiation for this purpose.
30 a)
b)
Gamma radiation.
Alpha radiation.
The key here is that ionisation requires a transfer of energy. Hence
radiations that are absorbed in a short distance, transferring
energy sooner, must be more ionising.
31 Alpha particles would be stopped by almost any thickness of paper

or metal foil. Gamma rays would pass through virtually
unabsorbed regardless of thickness. Only the beta particles would
show significant change with thickness and so be useful in
gauging thickness.
32 a)
b)
5%
1 in 20
33 a) For a 1 Sv annual radiation dose the risk of death is 1 in 20. So,

assuming a linear relationship as in figure 7.24, for 1 mSv
(1/1000th of 1 Sv) the risk must be 1/1000th of 1 in 20, namely 1
in 20000.
b)
For 2.5 mSv (1/400th of 1 Sv) the risk must be 1/400th of 1 in 20,
namely 1 in 8000.
c)
1/40th of the risk of smoking 10 cigarettes a day or half the risk of

a road accident.
34 a)
Alpha radiation is absorbed by a few centimetres of air and
so its ionising effects are unlikely to reach us, such devices usually
being fitted on ceilings or high up on walls.
b)
The main risk would be from burning on a rubbish dump which

might then put the Americium-241 into the atmosphere to be
Page 48


page 1
breathed in by us. It should not be a risk to water supplies as it is

insoluble.
35 This question should refer to figure 7.26.
Irradiation: use of beta emitter in cancer radiotherapy
Contamination: rainwater leaching radioactive caesium into the
soil, caesium-137 taken up by grass from soil, then eaten by
sheep, then eaten by people
36 The uranium in the granite rocks in Cornwall is a source of radon.
37 Yes. Over 50% of the total natural radiation dose in the UK comes
from radon (see figure 7.29).
38 Hypothesis: people exposed to raised levels of radon in their
homes are more likely to develop lung cancer.
39 a)
Risk of developing lung cancer is about 1 in 80 from an
annual dose of 10 mSv from radon.
b)
There is no simple way of making a direct quantitative

comparison. This question should be ignored.
40 Seascale is near to Sellafield where radioactive materials are

processed. There are low-level releases of radiation from
Sellafield. Exposure to radiation and to radioactive materials is
known to cause cancer.
41 Gardners findings only applied to Sellafield workers who lived in
Seascale but not to workers who lived elsewhere. The 1999 report
showed that overall the risk of children of Sellafield workers
developing leukaemia was no greater overall than for the whole of
the UK. Then Dickinson and Parker showed the chance of a child
developing leukaemia was influenced by whether or not one or
both parents came from outside Cumbria.
42 Further research might seek to:
identify the virus responsible for the onset of leukaemia

and show that the established population was immune to it but
not new comers
show that there leukaemia clusters in other areas where

there has been population mixing but where there is no
abnormal risk of exposure to radiation
43 Lifetime risk of cancer increases by 1 in 20 000 for every 1 mSv of

radiation dose. Dose from CT scan of pelvis is 10 mSv, increasing
risk to 10 in 20 000, or 1 in 2000.
44 The risk of developing cancer as a result of the diagnostic use of
X-rays is low. There are many other risk factors for cancer. There is
Page 49


page 1
generally a long delay between exposure to the risk factor and the
onset of disease. In these circumstances it is difficult to
demonstrate a link between the use of X-rays and the subsequent
onset of cancer.
45 a)
Gamma rays readily pass through body tissues (see figure
7.23) and can then be detected by a camera.
b)
The short half-life means that the radioactive isotope decays

quickly so that body tissues are only irradiated for a short time.
46 a)
There is no benefit to visitors in being exposed to the
radiation that is intended to cure the patient and so visitors should
not be exposed to an increased risk.
b)
The half-life of the radioactive iodine is 8 days so the level of

radiation falls by to a quarter of its initial value after 16 days.
47 Examples of irradiation: CT scans, radiotherapy with X-ray beams

or radioactive sources
Examples of contamination: use of technecium-99 for diagnosis
and iodine-131 for treatment
48 Diagnostic procedures are used with people who may or may not
be ill. It is important to understand the risks associated with
diagnosis. Radiotherapy is used to treat people who are known to
have cancer and for whom the short term benefits of treatment
clearly outweigh the longer term risks of harm from radiation.
49 It is relatively cheap to take steps to lower a relatively high dose.
As the dose get s lower it becomes increasingly expensive to
lower the dose further.
50 The application of the principle might be applied separately to
existing homes and to homes being built in areas where radon
from the ground is a hazard. It is cheaper to design and build a
home to exclude radon entering living areas than to adapt and
existing home.
According to the Health Protection Agency the most effective way
to deal with radon is to fit a 'radon sump' to a property to vent the
gas into the atmosphere. A sump has a pipe connecting a space
under a solid floor to the outside. A small electric fan in the pipe
continually sucks the radon from under the house and expels it
harmlessly to the atmosphere. Modern sumps are often
constructed from outside the house so there is no disruption
inside. See this web site:
http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAweb&HPAwebStandard/HPAweb_C/
1197636998945.
Page 50


page 1
The ALARA principle suggests that proven practical steps be taken

to reduce the exposure to radiation to at least below the action
level of an Action Level of 200 becquerels per cubic metre.
51 Employers of staff who work with ionisation radiation and
radioactive materials have to abide by the regulations which
include the provision of design of equipment and procedures to
minimise risks, the provision of personal protective equipment,
dose recording and monitoring as well as medical checks.
Radiation doses can be kept as low as possible by using as little
radioactive material as possible, limiting the time that people are
exposed to radiation, maintaining as large a distance as possible
from sources of radiation and adding shielding using lead,
concrete or other materials.
ALARA implies that, so ling as minimum standards are met, it is
appropriate to strike a balance between reducing radiation doses
on the one hand the practicability and cost on the other.
52 a)
The hazard associated with a radioactive material depends
the type of radiation emitted and the intensity of the radiation.
Also significant are the characteristic so the material which
determine how it moves through the body and whether or not it
can enter the human body through the food chain or other routes.
b)
Non-ionising radiation, such a visible light and infrared radiation,

does not have enough energy to turn atoms into ions and break
up molecules. Ionising radiation, such as UC light, X-rays and
gamma rays can have these effects and so cause chemical
damage in living tissues.
c)
Radioactivity is the emission of alpha particles, beta particles or

gamma rays from unstable atoms. Radiation dose measure the
absorption of radiation taking into account the extent to which the
radiation does damage to living cells.
d)
A source of gamma rays can be used to irradiate food to kill

bacteria. There is no contact between the radiation source and the
food.
Radioactive iodine is injected into patients to treat thyroid disease.
The radioactive material enters the body so this is an example of
contamination.
e)
Ionising radiations can cause cancer because they can cause

damage to DNA molecules. This can damage genes that control
cell division. Uncontrolled cell division leads to cancer.
Page 51


page 1
53 a)
For example, exposure to sunlight increases the risk of
developing skin cancer but not all those who sunbathe do develop
this form of cancer.
b)
Case control studies have been used to investigate the possible

link between mobile phones and the development of acoustic
neuroma and also the possible link between the development of
childhood leukaemia and living under power lines.
c)
It is very difficult to prove a negative. In complex situations many

risk factors are involved and with some of them there is a very low
probability that they will lead to a harmful condition.
54 a)
Examples from the chapter include mobile phones, the
national grid to supply electricity, wireless networks, nuclear
power and nuclear medicine.
b)
People tend to think that radiation from nuclear waste is much

more dangerous than sunlight but the risk of death from cancer
caused by sunlight is much greater in the UK than the risk from
nuclear waste. About 8000 people a year are diagnosed with skin
cancer and deaths from the disease area about 1800 a year.
c)
Some people worry about the possible risks associated with

mobile phones but nevertheless use the phones regularly. Drivers
enjoy the convenience of private motoring despite the fact that
about 3000 people die on UK roads each year and many more are
injured.
Page 52


page 1
Chapter 8 Lifestyle and health
1
Snows hypothesis was that cholera is transmitted in water which

has been contaminated with sewage from an infected person.
He investigated the quality of the water supply as a factor which
affected the risk of catching cholera.
Snow found a part of South London ideally suited to testing his
hypothesis. Some houses received clean water from the Lambeth
water company, others received polluted water drawn from the
Thames in London by the Southwark water company. As the
houses were often in the same street the two groups were
matched in other factors which might have been involved. Snow
found that the incidence of cholera was much greater in
households which received the polluted Southwark water. This
correlation between water supply and cholera incidence supported
his hypothesis.
It may be possible to protect people from the disease through

reducing the risk factors, even if the precise mechanism of the
cause of the disease is not known. Known risk factors also give a
lead for further investigation of causes.
Lung cancer rates increased at the same time as air pollution from
cars increased. Car exhausts contains toxic chemicals and are
inhaled. So there was both a correlation and a possible
mechanism to support the idea of a link.
Figure 8.4 indicates that a connection between lung cancer and
motor traffic is at least plausible, because, although not shown,
we know that traffic rose steeply from 1945 - 1960. However if
pollution from traffic did have a significant effect on the lungs it is
surprising that levels of bronchitis stayed constant. (The data in
figure 8.4 are national figures. The connection could be better
tested if local figures were used. It would be possible to compare
the rates of lung cancer in urban and rural regions which would
have very different levels of traffic.)
Page 53


page 1
The increase in lung cancer deaths only became significant some

years after the increase in smoking. Individuals might need to
smoke for up to 30 or 40 years before they became ill with lung
cancer.
Doctors responded more quickly than the general public to the

early evidence of a link between smoking and lung cancer. This
may have been because they became aware of the evidence
sooner and understood the significance of the data better. Some
of the more compelling evidence came from studies with doctors
and so this made the information seem personal. Also because
they had seen the suffering caused by the disease and were more
frightened of it.
At any age the risk of dying of lung cancer is greater, the more
cigarettes smoked. The increase in risk is much greater over the
age of 55 and is low for those under 45.
7
At a younger age, people are relatively healthy and the effects of
smoking have not started to become apparent.
The risk seems remote for young people whilst the benefits they
gain from smoking are immediate.
There may be an influence from peer-group pressure.
Older people are more aware of mortality and choose not to
smoke, or give up.
8
In an epidemiological study scientists could compare rates of

incidence of lung, mouth, oesophageal and other cancers to see if
there is any statistically significant difference between users of
the different tobacco products.
People are exposed to a huge variety of chemicals in the

environment throughout their lives. Very few of these are a direct
and certain cause of cancer in the same way that a bacterium is
the cause of cholera. Many of them may increase the risk of
cancer, some by only a small amount. It is almost impossible in
most cases to find control groups where one, and only one, of
these factors is different in the two groups. Because the effect
may not appear until many years later it is hard to collect data on
the level of exposure to the chemical.
10 In the absence of an explanation of why smoking caused lung

cancer it is possible to think that the correlation comes about by
chance. A convincing explanation for the link between the factor
and the outcome makes the claim for the effect much more
convincing.
Page 54


page 1
11
A sample of people suffering from cancer of the colon (cases)

are compared with a sample of healthy people. Risks shown
as such as dietary factors are studied to see if they occur
more frequently in one group than the other.
12 Working people would

not be available at lunch time. Membership of primary school
parent-teacher associations is likely to include people within a
certain age-range and socio-economic groups. People currently ill
may not attend.
13 People with current and previous illnesses are more likely to be

represented in the sample, so this might reduce the apparent
effect of any beneficial factors, and increase the apparent effect of
risks.
14 Environmental factors such as lifestyle, diet, exposure to
pollutants, and so on, are likely to be shared by members of the
same family, so may be the cause of observed patterns in the
occurrence of a disease.
15 Isolated populations are likely to interbreed, increasing the
chances of two people with the same rare mutation producing
offspring. Disease-linked mutations that are recessive appear as
cases more frequently than would be expected in a large, nonisolated population.
16 Identical twins arise when a fertilised egg cell divides and
separates to form two embryos. Both embryos inherit the same
genes from mother and father because they arise from the same
egg and sperm.
Page 55


page 1
17 Identical twins have the same genes. Comparisons of twins reared

together or apart can help to determine the extent to which genes
or environment determine particular characteristics.
Non-identical do not have the same genes but they are often
reared together in the same environment. Studies of such twins to
also help to determine the extent to which characteristics are
heritable or determined by environment.
18 Cheap air travel from the 1970s onwards, has allowed more and
more people to travel to sunbathe in countries with strong and
prolonged sunshine. In the same period it has been fashionable to
have a tan. Depletion of the ozone layer also causes more UV
exposure. There is a delay between exposure and the onset of
cancer. The recent rise in skin cancer follows and earlier increase
in the general exposure to UV from the Sun.
19 The more people are exposed to sunshine, the more freckles,
moles and other pigmented areas there are on their skin. This is
the main effect when people are younger. However exposure to
sunlight also affects the activity of the genes that help to give rise
to pigmented areas. So as people get older the genetic effect
becomes more important.
20 a)
Members of a particular population may all have a similar
diet and be exposed to broadly similar environmental factors. This
can mean that they may not be exposed to one or more important
risk factors related to ill health; in which case the effects of the
risk factor will not show up in a study of the population.
b)
The reduction is risk will not show up in the study if the beneficial
factor is not part of the diet of a significant number of members of
the population.
21 The advantage of the EPIC and UK Biobank studies is that the data
is being collected systematically over a long period of time with a
large sample of people that is representative as possible. At the
start the researchers do not know which of the people will be
affected by the various diseases of interest. The information will
be collected as it happens and not rely on recollection of things
that happened years in the past.
22 The study is collecting a very large amount of personal data about
individuals. It is important that this data does not get into the
hands of wrong people and that it is only used for the purposes
stated when the participants agreed to take part in the research.
The ethics and governance council is needed to balance the
possibly conflicting rights of the participants and researchers, and
to ensure ethical practices in areas such as consent and
ownership of information.
Page 56


page 1
23 Using sunscreen may prevent people from taking more effective

actions to avoid exposure, such as covering up and moving into
shade. Sunscreens have limited effectiveness if they have been
kept too long and or are not applied correctly. Sunscreen may be
removed by sweating or bathing and so need to be reapplied
from time to time. Applying sunscreen may be normal behaviour
during a holiday or when engaged in some sports but it may not
be something that is so easy to do in a variety of kinds of outside
work.
24 The precautionary principle applies in circumstances in which
there remains uncertainty about the scientific evidence but where
there is a plausible case to be made that it would be wise to avoid
exposure to particular risk factors. The aim is to avoid using the
absence of clear cut evidence as an excuse for doing nothing. This
seems to apply to the ban on smoking in public places which was
designed in part to protect non-smokers from passive smoking but
also to cut down on the amount of smoking by smokers, by
supporting the notion that smoking in public is antisocial.
25 a)
Cancer is a disease caused when the normal control of cell
division breaks down. Cells start to divide in an uncontrolled way.
This can be caused by changes to DNA called mutations. At least
two critical mutations in a cell are needed to cause cancer.
However the body has repair mechanisms that can repair DNA so
in most cases mutations do not accumulate and lead to cancer.
b)
Risk factors for cancer that cause mutations include ionising

radiations, chemicals in tobacco smoke, air pollutants from motor
vehicles and some chemicals present in the diet.
26 a)
For many years, the manufacturers of cigarettes used the
argument that there was no proven causal link between smoking
and lung cancer to argue that smoking should not be restricted
just because there was a correlation between the rise in lung
cancer and the rise in smoking.
b)
Scientists have studied the chemicals in tobacco smoke and

shown that they can cause mutations in the genes that control cell
division and in genes connected with the repair mechanisms that
help to prevent cancer developing. Understanding these
connections helps to convince scientist that there is a causal
relationship between smoking and lung cancer.
c)
An example is the development of nuclear power to generate

electricity. The highly radioactive materials involved are hazardous
and can lead to cancers and other ailments if the radioactive
materials are not contained. Also the medical technologies which
use radiation for diagnosis and treatment (see chapter 7) bring
Page 57


page 1
benefits but also expose patients to radiations that can be

harmful.
d)
The larger the sample size, the less the danger of random
variations giving rise to misleading results. The large-scale UK
Biobank project is an example of a very large scale study to
explore the relationships between genes, environment and health.
e)
This is well illustrated by the possible risks from mobile phones

and living near power lines described in chapter 6. The occurrence
of harmful effects is so rare that even quite large-scale
epidemiological studies can fail to produce definitive findings.
f)
The advice that parents should limit the extent to which their
children use mobile phones is an example of the precautionary
approach. There is still considerable uncertainty about how
harmful mobile phones really can be for young people but it is
nevertheless plausible that excessive use of theses phones could
be damaging.
27 a)
In many countries the mortality rate is higher for women
than men.
With Sweden, Denmark and Finland near the top of the list and
Greece, Cyprus, Portugal and Spain near the bottom there is a hint
of a trend towards countries in higher latitudes having higher
mortality rates than countries nearer to or in the Mediterranean.
However there are many exceptions to this simple pattern which
may also be related to the extent to which people who mainly live
further north are able to travel to enjoy sunshine in summer.
b)
It could be due to skin pigmentation varying between the

countries - there could be a related genetic component with
people who come from families that have always lived in the more
southern countries being naturally better protected against
melanoma.
Perhaps, at least in some countries, women enjoy sunbathing
more and are keener on getting tanned.
Maybe people who are not exposed to intense sunshine for most
of the year are more inclined to expose their pale skin to intense
sun when possible and especially on holiday.
Exceptions to the general trends could be the result of movements
of people between different parts of the world, but arise because
people in some countries have more interest and freedom to
travel to hot sunny countries for sunbathing.
Other possible variables are:
Page 58


page 1
the extent to which men and women in different countries work

outside in occupations such as agriculture
the scale and effectiveness of educational programmes and
promotional campaigns encouraging people to protect
themselves from sunlight
cultural attitudes to sunbathing and tanning.
c)
Primary schools could explain the reasons for being Sun Smart and
then insist that children follow the guidelines when they are out of
door during the school day. Schools could extent the guidance to
parents too and encourage parents to set a good example at
open-air school events.
d)
You could make you argument either way depending on your

observations of the extent to which acquaintances, friends and
family respond, in your experience, to education programmes and
promotional campaigns.
28 Variations between studies could arise because of differences in:

research design including sampling method, identification of
controls and sample size
the country or region where the study was carried out
the types of sunscreen used
the timescale over which the study was carried out
the way that melanoma risk was carried out
the organisation doing the work and the source of funding.
29 a)
Examples include: diet and eating habits as well as other
more or less social activities such as smoking, drinking and other
types of drug taking.
b)
This might include behaviours that become habitual such as

cleaning teeth, washing hands also some ways of taking exercise
in a regular way.
30 You might defend the course of action on the grounds such as:
this is response to the wishes of consumers
this is a wise precaution given the uncertainty about safety of
some permitted colours especially for children who are
unlikely to attend to food labels
customers who do not like the decision can go elsewhere.
You might oppose the decision on grounds such as:
Page 59


page 1
this is irrational because the scientific evidence suggest that the

permitted food colours are safe
consumers should be able to make their own decision based on
information on food labels
it is not necessarily the case that natural colours are safer than
manufactured colours.
Page 60


page 1
Chapter 9 Evolution
1
Darwin saw that:

fossils resemble animals now alive but often differ from them
the creatures on the Galapagos Islands were similar to, yet
distinctly different from, species on the mainland and, in some
cases, from species on other Galapagos Islands.
b)
He thought that the passage of time might allow species to

diverge in form and appearance by evolving from their ancestors.
He suggested that an ancestral animal reaching the Galapagos
Islands from the mainland could then evolve independently on
each island to give rise, in time, to distinct species.
2 a) All individuals would be equally likely to survive and reproduce.

b)
There would be no connection between which individuals did best

in one generation and which in the next.
c)
No one type of individual would do better than any other.
d)
Some evolution might be possible but it would happen much more

slowly because most genes would pass from one generation to the
next.
3 a) [Lamarck] Birds of prey need to fly fast to catch prey. Over their
life-time, birds develop the appropriate large flight muscles and
other key features and pass these on, at least to some extent, to
their offspring. Over the generations the birds evolve the ability to
fly very fast.
[Darwin] Birds of prey need to fly fast to catch prey. Within a bird
of prey species, some individuals can fly faster than others. These
birds catch more food, do better and leave more offspring. Such
offspring, at least to some extent, inherit their parents' abilities.
Over the generations the birds evolve the ability to fly very fast.
b)
A blacksmith with highly developed muscles (etc.), does not

necessarily give birth to children with the same attributes.
Page 61


page 1
5 (i) Since these travellers are pre-historic there is no record of

existence. In the absence of any evidence, this is not a scientific
statement. It cannot be falsified.
(ii) This could clearly be falsified by finding an example of a tortoise
that was able to swim from one island to another. It would be
necessary to check rather carefully that there had been no human
intervention if one found a tortoise, today, on an island where it
would not normally be expected to be seen.
(iii) This could, in principle, be tested by experiment and falsified but it would be wrong to upset the natural ecology of these unique
islands in this sort of way.
(iv) This would be difficult to falsify because the islands are volcanic
and relatively young on geological timescales so there are likely to
be few, if any, traces of early organisms that could be carbondated to establish their age.
6
They were both alive at the same time and grew up in the same
country with similar cultural influences; both taken part in
expeditions overseas and had come in contact with a tremendous
diversity of species which they sampled and collected; both had
read Malthus.
Darwins theory required the Earth to be very old to allow time for
evolution to create new species. If the Earth was only 100 million
years old, this would not leave enough time for evolution to have
produced all the observable diversity of life
8 a) Darwin accumulated a great deal of evidence through collection

through observing living species today and through experiment.
He marshalled his evidence to show it supported his theory of
natural selection. The theory seemed very powerful. It is often the
case that, as a theory develops, some counter evidence is
emerges but this has to be tested and explored before the new
theory is modified or rejected. Darwins argument seemed, to him,
too strong to be overturned by a calculation which might, in time,
turn out to be wrong.
b)
Neither Lamarck nor Darwin had access to evidence for the

precise mechanisms for evolution. More recently, natural selection
has been supported through explanations involving understanding
of molecular genetics in addition to new fossils. At the time, with
the available evidence, both theories could have been considered
plausible.
9 a) A scientific theory is testable, and it is possible to support or

refute it through evidence from observations or experiments
Page 62


page 1
(empirical evidence). Scientific theories are refined (or replaced)

when new evidence arises. Religious beliefs depend on faith, not
evidence, and are based on scriptures, dogma, rules of the religion
or personal experiences which cannot be proved wrong.
b)
Evolution is supported by experiments on fossil evidence, genetic

evidence and observation of living organisms.
Creationism and intelligent design are based on specific
interpretations of ideas in religious texts, and are not open to
being falsified by evidence. Creationism is attractive to people
who cannot imagine that chance variation and natural selection
could give rise to complex structures such as the human eye.
10 Creationist beliefs reject the idea that everything can be explained

through science without any reference to some sort of creator that
intervenes in the development and behaviour of life on Earth.
Faiths of this kind can embrace evolution and much of the
evidence for it, but not the idea that conscious human beings, and
other complex organisms, came into existence through chance
variation and natural selection over millions of years. Faith of this
kind might be put in doubt to some degree by further scientific
knowledge but, fundamentally, it is a matter of belief.
11 Creationists put forward detailed, reasoned arguments to support
their views. The arguments are based on different premises to the
arguments of scientists. Some scientists regard the creationist
standpoint as irrational, because there is good scientific evidence
to support evolution, and creationists reject it, even though it is
accepted by the scientific community. Scientists take the view
that, in time, natural explanations will be found for any aspects of
a theory that are not understood. They see no need for, or
evidence for, any kind of super-natural interventions.
12 Mendel proposed that the characteristics of organisms are
determined by pairs of factors (nowadays called 'genes'), one of
each pair coming from an individual's mother and the other from
its father. His data were collected from successive generations of
plant breeding experiments in whih he recorded such things as the
heights of pea plants and the mothers and fathers of particular
pea plants. His model for inheritance involved things like factors
which, at the time, were invisible, but helped explain his
observations.
13 Fast breeding organisms allow scientists to study many
generations over a relatively short time-span, to see if any
changes in the genetic make-up of the population take place.
14 Nowadays there is far more evidence for Mendel's ideas than
when he was alive; it takes people, including scientists, time to
Page 63


page 1
get used to new ideas. When new theories conflict with wellestablished explanations, such as the 17th century homunculus
theory of inheritance, scientists are often reluctant to reject the
original theory, even when evidence is shown to support the new
theory. As new theories become accepted they are redescribed in
textbooks and popularised in the media. Nowadays genes are a
part of popular culture.
15 Climate change puts an environmental pressure on populations to
evolve. Some individuals possess mutations which mean they are
better able to survive any climate (or other environmental)
change than others. The offspring of these individuals may
become more common in the population, through natural
selection. This change in the genetic make-up of the population is
what can lead to evolution of new species.
16 Water, space, mates (if same species), oxygen (especially when
this is scarce), light (plants) etc.
17 It depends on the role of the species within the ecosystem. For
example, if a species is the main food source at the start of most
food chains in the ecosystem, extinction could be catastrophic. If
there are many other species which offer alternative food sources,
the effect could be minimal. There may be complex relationships
which make a particular species key to an ecosystem.
18 Evolution only occurs when there is selective pressure, normally a
change in the environment or competition for a scarce resource.
Sharks live in the sea, which is a very stable environment, and has
changed relatively little in the past few million years compared
with the land environment. Sharks became highly adapted to their
environment, so mutations would not confer a selective advantage
to any individual showing much variation from the average.
Bacteria treated with an antibiotic are in an environment where
there is a great environmental pressure for evolution; a scarce
mutation conferring resistance to the antibiotic results in selection
of bacteria with this mutation, which survive to produce a new
strain. Also - the life cycle of bacteria is very short, a matter of
hours in normal conditions. As mutations are more likely to occur
during cell replication, the more frequently cells divide, the more
chance there is of mutations being present in a population. For
this reason, organisms with a short life cycle are likely to evolve in
a shorter time period.
19 In order for a new species to evolve, it must be separated from the
species from which it originates. If the two populations can
interbreed, it will not be possible to accumulate enough
Page 64


page 1
differences in genetic make-up to produce a new species. The

deep water between the islands prevents tortoises moving from
one to another.
20 The theory of evolution states that over time species have greatly
changed. The theory of natural selection provides one particular
mechanism to explain how evolution may have occurred; the jump
between evolution and natural selection required conjecture and
creative imagination.
Other aspects which required this type of conjecture are
extrapolating from Malthus' arguments about the potential
insufficiency of human food supply, and the analogy between
selection by nature (natural selection) and selection by people
(artificial selection).
21 Individuals with mutations that allow them to compete
successfully for scarce resources are most likely to survive to pass
on their genes. New species evolve from these individuals that can
compete effectively. One way to avoid competition is to use
resources such as food or living space which no other organisms
want or can access. This reduces competition with other
organisms living in the same area. Environmental pressure on
species favours evolution which avoids competition between
species, leading to new species specialised to a particular set of
environmental conditions. The number and diversity of different
species on Earth is partly due to environmental pressure and
avoiding competition.
22 The theory of evolution was based, at the time of Darwin, on
observations of the diversity of life on Earth, and on the fossil
record. The theory of natural selection then suggested a
mechanism for evolution, which helped acceptance of the theory
of evolution. Darwin was not the first person to describe evolution.
His grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, explored evolutionary ideas
influenced by even earlier thinkers. However Charles Darwins
work on the origin of species through natural selection was new.
23 a)
The opponents of the inter-faith alliance were of the
opinion that if scientific ideas are unacceptable to religious beliefs,
this makes them untrue. Scientific theories are only proved
wrong when evidence is produced which refutes them, or, more
commonly, creates a need to refine the theory.
b)
Most scientific theories can be tested by experiment; others,

including evolution and theories about the origin of the universe
are interpretations of different types of evidence from observation.
In these cases, the theories can still be falsified, as long as it is
possible to make predictions that certain types of possible
Page 65


page 1
observations could refute. The theory of natural selection could,

for example, be refuted by finding a fossil human dated from the
beginning of life on Earth.
Although, as discussed, scientific theories cannot be proved
correct, evidence from many experiments, or, many different
types of evidence that support a theory do lend it validity.
24 a)
This level of variation may be within a single species, or
may indicate two species. This depends on exactly where the
differences in the DNA are. Chimpanzees and humans are different
species but have 98.5 percent of their genes in common.
b)
Mules and donkeys are different species, as their hybrid offspring

(mules) are sterile.
c)
An identical genetic fingerprint suggests these are the same

species; the colour difference may be due to a local environmental
difference e.g. sunlight or temperature.
25 a)
For the same sort of reasons as Darwin and other
contemporaries were slow to accept evolution by natural selection
the cultural and religious climate of the time made it difficult to
suggest theories which went against literal interpretations of the
bible.
b)
Current systems of classification are based on the relationship

between species, acknowledging the potential for species to
evolve into other species. New genetic evidence means that the
understanding of these relationships is growing leading to
changes in classification.
c)
Biodiversity can only be mapped if species can be identified

accurately. Both conservation and exploitation of species relies on
identification.
Page 66


page 1
Chapter 10 The Universe
1a) One piece of evidence comes from eclipses of the Moon. The
Earths shadow on the Moon looks circular, which means the Earth
must either be a sphere or a circular disc and the latter is most
unlikely as no traveller has ever found the edge.
The observations by Eratosthenes of the length of the shadow of a
stick (p. 155) are also evidence that the Earths surface is curved
as otherwise the length of the shadow would not change from
place to place.
Additional evidence that the Earth is a sphere comes from the fact
that if you keep on travelling westwards (or eastwards) from any
point, you eventually come back to where you started. Magellans
famous circumnavigation of the globe in 1522 convinced people of
his day that the Earth was a globe.
Another kind of evidence comes from observing a ship far out to
sea on a clear day. If you look at it from the beach with binoculars,
you will notice that you cannot see the lower part of the ships
hull. Only the upper part is visible, perhaps even only the masts.
The explanation is that the surface of the sea is not flat, but
curved (following the curvature of the Earth). So the ship has
partly disappeared over the horizon.
The most direct evidence of the Earths near spherical shape is
from observations and photographs from space. Indeed human
exploration of space would have failed had we not been correct in
believing that the Earth is a sphere.
b)
Although the observed motions of the stars, and of the Sun and
Moon, are compatible with the view that the Earth is stationary
whilst these objects move around it, the motions of the planets
are more difficult to account for from this perspective. We need
complicated models like that of Ptolemy to explain why Mars,
Jupiter and Saturn appear generally to move across the sky in the
same direction as the stars, but from time to time move
backwards against the pattern of stars. This can be much more
easily explained if the Sun is at the centre and the planets
(including Earth) are all moving round it. It is also very hard to
account for the phases of Venus, and its regular changes in
Page 67


page 1
apparent size and brightness, if the Earth is fixed and at the

centre. And it is hard to explain why the planets Mercury and
Venus are always observed close to the direction of the Sun.
2
The stars do not move significantly relative to each other, but

appear to move slowly across the sky in fixed patterns. But the
planets move relative to the pattern of stars. This suggests they
are not stars, but something different.
We see planets as circular discs through a telescope and can even
(with a powerful telescope) see some surface detail, whereas stars
remain just points of light. This suggests that planets are a lot
closer. Also some planets have other objects moving round them;
Jupiter has moons, and Saturn has rings, for example. We do not
observe any such objects around stars.
The fact that they appeared unchanging. In contrast, objects on

Earth change with time. Aristotle also thought that the celestial
bodies were all perfect spheres a view that was challenged when
Galileo observed sunspots, and mountains on the Moon.
The planets movement will normally be in the same general

direction as the more distant background stars, as the centre of its
circle moves slowly round the Earth. But the combination of the
planets motion around a small circle, the centre of which moves
in a larger circle round the Earth, would result in loops in its path
as seen from Earth. For part of this loop, we would see the planet
moving backwards against the background of the stars (as Figure
10.7 shows). Note, however, that this model is no longer the
accepted one. A heliocentric model leads to a simpler explanation
(Figure 10.9).
(i) Ridicule by other astronomers.

(ii) Opposition from the Church authorities.
There are verses in the Christian bible which imply that the Earth
is fixed. Although these are widely seen as poetic statements,
some people interpreted them literally and so rejected the idea
that the Earth could move. Also, the mainstream theology of the
time was based on Aristotles philosophical views, which included
a fixed Earth making it difficult to oppose or seek to change
these, as they were supported by powerful vested interests.
Perhaps the simplicity of the heliocentric model is the strongest

argument in its favour. It seems a much more elegant and
satisfying explanation than Ptolemys complex model. Also
Page 68


page 1
important is its capacity to explain the retrograde motion of the

planets. It also seems more likely to lead towards an explanation
of the cause of the observed motions.
The most basic argument against is perhaps that the Earth does
not feel as though it is both spinning on its axis and orbiting the
Sun at high speed. There is no feeling of movement, no wind. Also,
we do not observe stellar parallax which we would expect to see if
we observe stars at different distances away, on two dates six
months apart, when we are at very different points in space at
the opposite sides of the Earths orbit round the Sun.
It is impossible to say how one would have decided at the time. It
is always difficult to take up a new theory and overthrow a well
established one. The influence of the Catholic Church was very
strong, and its authority was strongly enforced, so a person
needed to be brave to oppose it. On the other hand, the quest for
understanding was bringing up evidence that seemed to challenge
the accepted view.
8
A key observation was a supernova in 1572, showing that the

heavens are not eternal and unchanging. Also Tycho observed a
comet whose path would have taken it through several of the
crystal spheres of the Ptolemaic model.
Astronomers were still bound to a great extent by tradition and

overthrowing a model established for fourteen hundred years
would be difficult to do. They had worked with the geocentric
model and it did have quite good predictive power. It was not
obvious that there were many practical gains from adopting the
new, and unproven, model. And, of course, the heliocentric model
is counter-intuitive the Earth does not feel as if it is moving at
high speed and also spinning on its axis.
10 A key piece of evidence from Galileos observations was his

observation of moons orbiting the planet Jupiter. This showed that
there were celestial objects orbiting a centre other than the Earth.
(This evidence was in fact available in the 4th century BC from the
Chinese astronomer Kan Fe.) Galileo also observed sunspots and
mountains on the Moon, showing that these objects were not
perfect spheres as Aristotle had declared. So his observations
challenged some key parts of the Aristotelian view. Galileo also
made observations of the phases of Venus and showed that what
was seen included a full phase which would not be possible on
the Ptolemaic geocentric model. Whilst these observations were in
line with the predictions of the heliocentric model, it was also
Page 69


page 1
possible to explain them with Tycho Brahes variation on the

geocentric model.
The following web site on Galileo may be of interest:
The Galileo Project at
http://galileo.rice.edu/.
11 This means seeing the model as just a way of doing calculations
and making predictions, but not as a factual description of how
things really are.
12 It is difficult to be certain. All of us are more comfortable with
ideas we have grown up with, and reluctant to change them
especially if they carry religious significance. Key figures in the
Church would also have been concerned to uphold the authority of
the Church from which they gained much of their own authority.
Galileos decision to put some of the arguments of Pope Urban VIII
into the mouth of his character, Simplicio, making these look
rather foolish, may have caused additional opposition.
13 The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is a debate
about the relative merits of the Ptolemaic and Copernican models.
It leads to a conclusion in favour of the Copernican view.
14 Through a dialogue between three imaginary speakers, Galileo
was able to present arguments on one side and the other,
supporting and challenging various points in the way one might in
a play, or in a real discussion with other people. The dialogue
format makes it easier to bring out the main points of each
argument, present the evidence for and against them, and put
forward and consider possible counter-arguments. It is often easier
to understand a debate or dispute when it is presented in the form
of a dialogue. Because it was written in Italian rather than in Latin
it could be read by ordinary people, not just by scholars. Perhaps a
disadvantage was that it brought out the arguments too clearly,
and showed the weakness of arguments favoured by some
powerful people, making them look foolish.
15 Kepler used the data collected over many years by Tycho Brahe.
The data did not agree with the Copernican model closely enough
to satisfy Kepler, though the disagreement was tiny and many
people would have disregarded it, or assumed the data were
inaccurate. For Kepler, they did falsify the simple Copernican
model or at least showed it needed to be modified. Kepler did
not, however, see this as falsifying the heliocentric model, which
he accepted throughout his life. The model he eventually
Page 70


page 1
proposed was a heliocentric one, based on elliptical orbits rather

than circular ones.
16 That the orbits of the planets are ellipses not circles.
17 No. The word deduced implies that only logical reasoning was
involved. Others might have looked at the same data and not
come to the same conclusion as Kepler. It required considerable
imagination to consider an orbit shape other than a circle.
18 Kepler used Tycho Brahes data and did not collect more of his
own. But his idea that the orbits might be elliptical enabled him to
draw up large tables of predictions of planetary positions that
agreed very closely with observation. For the first time, a
heliocentric model of the solar system had enabled scientists to
make predictions that were better than the old geocentric model.
19 Essentially the problem was: why do objects close to the Earth fall
towards the centre of the Earth, but objects like the Moon do not?
Newton wanted a single explanation that could account for both.
20 Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation proposed that there is a
force between any two masses, whose size is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. It can be
shown mathematically that the shape of the orbit of an object
round a much larger one, if the force between them follows an
inverse square law, is an ellipse. Also, the statements known as
Keplers Second and Third Laws follow as deductions from
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation. So Newton provided an
explanation based on a kind of mechanism as to why the
planets moved in the way Kepler had described.
21 It would have been possible to photograph areas of the sky on
different nights and look for objects that have moved relative to a
fixed background pattern of stars. Before the invention of
photography, this depended on having what we often call a
photographic memory. Long exposure photographs can also
enable us to observe objects too faint to see with the unaided eye.
22 This is a matter of opinion. But many people would argue that
observing something without knowing what it is that you are
observing does not count as having discovered it. Herschel was
the first to see the object we now know as Uranus and realise that
it was a planet.
23 No. It could have meant that the observations were incorrect, and
needed to be done more carefully. Or it could have meant that the
Page 71


page 1
predictions based on Keplers model and Newtons Laws were

incorrect, because of some factor that had not been properly
taken into account. This in fact was what scientists eventually
decided was the case.
24 Again, there is no single right answer to this. We now see
Newtons Law as highly trustworthy, but closer to Newtons time it
may not have had such a strong reputation. Even so, it had
impressively explained Keplers model, so there were good
grounds for continue to work with it, and look for a less radical
way of resolving the discrepancy between observation and
prediction. On the other hand, Airy could reasonably have argued
that Newton simply assumed his Law of Gravitation applied at all
distances, but had no direct evidence that this was so. (Science
more generally is based on assumptions of this kind that the
same laws apply throughout the Universe, and over long periods
of time for which there cannot be complete evidence.)
25 He might have looked for a star that moved relative to the others
around it, from night to night. Also, after the invention of
photography, he might have analysed a photographic plate which
was exposed continuously (except in day time) whilst being
rotated in synchronisation with the Earth. Stars would then appear
fixed in position, but a planet would then show up as a streak on
the emulsion.
26 More confident. An apparent anomaly had been explained, by
using Keplers model and Newtons Law. It had led to a new
discovery, the planet Neptune.
27 Take the separation of the eyes to be 7 cm on average. From s =
r where s is the arc length (here it is 7 cm), r the distance away
and the angular separation of the eyes in radians 1 second.
There are 2 radians in 360 degrees, one second is 1/360th of a
degree, so its value in radians is 2/(360 360) = 0.0000485.
Hence 7 cm = r 0.0000485 rad giving r = 7 cm/0.0000485 rad =
144385.36 cm or approximately 1443 m.
It would not be easy. The key problems are seeing the eyes at this
distance, resolving them as two separate objects, deciding exactly
where the centres of the eyes are, and finally in having an
instrument that can record so small an angle.
28 As radiation spreads from a point source, the surface of the
leading wavefront is a sphere of ever-increasing radius. The
Page 72


page 1
surface area of the sphere is getting larger all the time so the
energy that the radiation is carrying is being spread over a larger
and larger area. The brightness is related to the intensity of the
radiation (the amount of energy it transfers each second to each
unit area of an absorbing surface), so this gets steadily less with
distance. So if we have two objects of equal brightness, the one
that is further away looks dimmer, as the amount of energy our
eyes receive from it every second is less, because it has been
spread over a larger total area.
29 If all stars were equally bright sources, this would be correct. But
some of the more distant ones might be actually very bright
sources, and some of the closer ones might not be so bright. So
apparent brightness (what we see) may not correspond exactly to
intrinsic brightness (the true brightness of the source).
30 They vary in brightness with time in a regular manner.
There are two useful web sites related to Cepheid variable stars:
Cepheid Variable Stars
http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~soper/MilkyWay/cepheid.html
Cepheid Variables as Cosmic Yardsticks
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/mysteries_l1/cepheid.ht
ml
31 The key was that these stars in the Magellanic Cloud were all
around the same distance away so that the effect of distances on
observed brightness was effectively eliminated. Observed
brightness was a direct indication of intrinsic brightness.
32 No. Shapley had not proved that the centre of our galaxy lay in the
direction of Sagittarius and that the Sun was nowhere near the
centre. This was a conjecture (or hypothesis) based on his
assumption that the centre was where he had found star clusters
forming a huge sphere.
Details of the debate between Shapley and Curtis about the
nature of nebulae can be found on the web site:
The Shapley-Curtis Debate in 1920 at
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/diamond_jubilee/debate_1920.html
33 The appearance of nebulae is such that they could be clouds of
gas or dust relatively close to us or clusters of stars a very long
way away. Analysis of the light from the Orion nebula produces a
Page 73


page 1
line spectrum that shows it to be made up of hot diffuse gas.

Other nebulae, called reflection nebulae, consist of dust which
scatters light from nearby stars; so these have the same spectrum
as that of nearby stars. Large clusters of stars have spectra
representative of those stars. Hence spectroscopic analysis
provides useful evidence that nebulae are not all the same kind of
thing.
34 The island Universes idea is that the Universe consists of many
galaxies, each a kind of island Universe (though using the word
Universe here is a bit of a contradiction in terms!). The
alternative viewpoint was that everything is part of a single
galaxy, the Milky Way.
35 a)
Shapley thought that the Milky Way was the Universe that
everything we could see was part of it.
b)
Curtis thought that some of the nebulae were objects far beyond
the Milky Way, and were in fact galaxies similar to the Milky Way.
For Curtis, the Universe consisted of many galaxies.
36 Hubbles conclusion about the distance of the Andromeda nebula

(now known as the Andromeda galaxy), and the evidence it was
based on, were decisive. The debate quickly ended and the idea
that the Universe consisted of many galaxies became accepted.
37 The Andromeda galaxy is estimated to be 2.2 million light years
away.
a)
The nearest star (Proxima Centauri) is 4.3 light years away. So the
Andromeda galaxy is 510 000 times further away than the nearest
star (or just over half a million times further away).
b)
1 light year is equal to 9.5 x 1012 kilometres. The radius of the

solar system is 4.5 x 109 kilometres, which is equal to 4.7 x 10-4
light years. The distance to the Andromeda galaxy is about 4.7
thousand million times bigger than the radius of the solar system.
38 Although the points do not lie on a perfect straight line, they do

seem to show a clear relationship between velocity and distance.
We also have to bear in mind the many assumptions made in
estimating both velocity and distance, so we should not expect a
perfect straight line. Most astronomers were convinced.
Lots of detail on the Hubble Redshift is provided on the web site:
Page 74


page 1
How Fast is the Universe Expanding

http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_expansion.html
39 Estimates of both velocity and distance are based on many
assumptions; they cannot be measured directly. One problem that
Hubble faced with relatively nearby galaxies was that their
rotations superimposed an additional frequency shift on to their
recessional red shift. He also assumed that the brightest stars in
both nearby and remote galaxies would be of the same intrinsic
brightness (i.e. actual brightness not the brightness we
observe). But this is not always going to be a correct assumption.
These two factors gave rise to uncertainties in measurements of
both velocity and distance. Hence the graph has points spread
around the best-fit line.
Not everyone agrees with Hubbles interpretation of the redshift.
One who does not is Halton Arp. His views are summarised on:
Redshifts and the Hubble Law
http://www.heretical.com/science/redshift.html
40 Approximately 140 million light years distant.
41 Explain that the observed red shift suggests that galaxies are
receding from us and so the Universe is expanding. Whilst the
analogy is by no means perfect, you could illustrate the frequency
shift of a moving object with sound a buzzer whirled round in a
horizontal circle give rise to a frequency increase on approach and
a decrease as it moves away. The same is observed when a car
with a siren goes past you.
Note: A common question is What is the Universe expanding
into?. But the Universe is everything, so there cannot be
something else for it to expand into. It is space itself which is
expanding. There is no beyond the edge.
42 They observed microwave radiation, coming in equal intensity
from all directions, and corresponding to the electromagnetic
radiation that would be emitted from an object at a temperature
of about 3 degrees above absolute zero (3 K). The eventual
explanation of this was that it is the radiation originally released in
the big bang the echo of the big bang if you like.
43 No, prove is too strong a word. (Indeed it is almost always too
strong a word to use about any scientific theory or explanation.)
There could be other explanations. But it had been predicted by
Page 75


page 1
calculations based on the big bang theory. So finding it provided

strong support for that theory.
44 It has to be seen as a hypothesis. A fact is something that
everyone easily agrees about and that does not apply to this
claim.
45 Observations of distant galaxies suggest that there must be large
amounts of matter (mass) that we cannot see, which are
producing the gravitational forces needed to explain our
observations. Scientists called this invisible matter, dark matter.
46 The evidence for the existence dark matter is quite strong.
Gravitation is an accepted phenomenon, and the account of it
provided by Einsteins Theory of General Relativity is not under
dispute. Also, we know of other forms of matter (like neutrinos)
that are difficult to detect, so the notion of matter that we cannot
observe is not so far-fetched. Dark energy, on the other hand,
seems to have properties very different from anything we know.
Gravitational repulsion has never been observed, and is not
predicted by any major theory. Dark matter can seem rather like a
label for something we dont understand.
47 Scientists tend to prefer a simpler, more elegant model to one that
seems very complex and which has to keep on adding further
modifications to improve its match to observation. A good model
should be based on relatively few assumptions. However, it is
worth noting that Copernicus heliocentric model was not much
simpler than the Ptolemaic geocentric model. Copernicus had to
add extra circles to account for planetary motions. Only when
Kepler introduced the idea of elliptical orbits did the model
become truly simpler.
Another reason why scientists might be attracted to a heliocentric
model is that it offers the possibility of explaining the motions
observed. Perhaps some force emanating from the Sun keeps the
planets moving along their orbits. The combination of Newtons
Laws of Motion and his Law of Universal Gravitation provided this
explanation more than a century after Copernicus.
48 No, it cannot be deduced, if by that we mean that it follows
logically from the data collected on planetary positions. These are
open to many possible interpretations and explanations. No one
really knows what led Copernicus to his heliocentric idea. Others,
including some ancient Greeks, had had the idea previously, but it
had not taken root. In any case, it required imagination to
envisage how the motions might look simpler if viewed from a
Page 76


page 1
different position, that of the Sun rather than the Earth. Perhaps
Copernicus arrived at his model through a desire to seek the
truth. He may have thought the Ptolemaic model was too clumsy
to be Gods solution.
49 Whilst we like to have good agreement between observations
(data) and expectations (predictions), this is rarely perfect.
Discrepancies might be due to instrumental error or uncertainty,
or the theory on which the prediction is based may need some
refinement, or be incomplete. Slight disagreement between data
and prediction would not normally cause scientists to reject an
accepted explanation; they would be more likely to question the
data, or think that there might be additional factors that had not
been taken into account in making the prediction.
50 This is a historical claim, not a scientific one, so there is unlikely to
be complete agreement about it. In support of it, we might say
that the dispute seemed to be more about protecting ones
position of power and authority than about trying to determine the
truth of the matter. Galileo seems to have antagonised some
powerful people by his way of interacting with them. For example,
his decision to make the character Simplicio, in his book The
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, state some
points of view the Pope was known to favour was not politically
astute. Rather than try to find common ground with his opponents,
Galileo often seemed more inclined to ridicule them. On the other
hand, there was a more fundamental issue at stake about the
kinds of questions that religion could address, and those that were
the province of science. Galileo on occasions argued that matters
of astronomy were not within the realm on which theologians
should pronounce. The Catholic Church, for its part, was happy for
astronomers to present the heliocentric model as a calculating
device that saved the appearances, but did not permit them to
claim (or seem to claim) that it was a true description of how
things really were. Galileo thought that he had divorced science
from theology, but some powerful people in the Church disagreed.
Many historians think that the real fault line came between Galileo
and the philosophers (including many theologians) who adhered to
the Aristotelian worldview. The Galileo affair was therefore a
mixture of elements, and much depended on the personalities
involved. As you may know, the Vatican only cleared Galileo of
heresy in October 1992.
51 The short answer is that both were crucial. Galileos observations
of sunspots, mountains on the Moon and the moons of Jupiter
were important evidence for his heliocentric views. Tycho Brahes
Page 77


page 1
observation of the path of planet convinced him that planets were

not mounted on crystalline spheres. Without Brahes very accurate
data, Kepler would never have been forced to give up the idea of
circular planetary orbits. Small discrepancies in the observed
position of Uranus led to the prediction, followed by the
observation, of Neptune. However, these data did not lead
automatically or inevitably to the model of the solar system we
now think is correct. Proposing a theory, or model, that can
provide an explanation for what we observe requires imagination
and creative thinking. Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, Adams and
Leverrier all used imagination to propose explanations for the
observed motions of planets.
52 You might well see them as good scientists, as they did not discard
a respected and valued model, which was in agreement with a lot
of other data, without looking at other possibilities first. It is often
sensible to look first for other ways of explaining an anomaly that
have less serious implications.
It usually takes a number of challenges (or anomalous
observations) to make scientists give up well established ideas. An
accepted explanation is almost never rejected until someone has
proposed an alternative explanation which deals with the
anomalous data as well as the other known data that the previous
explanation accounted for.
53 Many scientists were convinced of the Copernican model even
before Keplers modifications (the elliptical orbits) enabled its
predictions to match those of the older geocentric model of
Ptolemy. This suggests that an elegant and simpler explanation
has much appeal compared to a very complicated model that
keeps being added to, in ways that make it more complex still. Of
course, a good match between data and prediction is also critical
just think of how hard Kepler worked to get rid of the 6 seconds of
arc discrepancy between his predictions of the position of Mars
and Brahes data. However, he never seems to have considered
giving up the heliocentric model.
It seems easier to get scientists to accept explanations that do not
challenge a fundamental theory. So, for instance, most scientists
quickly accepted Adams and Leverriers explanation for the
wobbles in the motion of Uranus. This explanation did not
challenge any well-established general theory. Indeed by
explaining the anomaly, it further strengthened the general theory
of Newton.
Page 78


page 1
54 There are many examples you might give here. The one
mentioned in the chapter is the Voyager probes. It seems
implausible that these would have followed the path intended if
our knowledge of the solar system was not very good indeed.
The making of the first atomic fission bomb in the Manhattan
project is another example. After years of calculation and
development of the components, the first bomb was assembled
and when tested, worked as expected. This suggests that the
understanding of nuclear physics it was based on was largely
correct.
Pasteurs test of the vaccine for anthrax at Pouilly-le-Fort is
another good example. He predicted that a complicated procedure
of weakening the micro-organism that causes anthrax would lead
to a vaccine that would protect sheep against the disease. When
this was dramatically shown in a public experiment in 1881, it
provided strong evidence that Pasteurs understanding of the
cause of the disease was sound.
55 Arguments in favour:
It satisfies the basic human trait of curiosity
It is important that humanity keeps pursuing new knowledge.
It provides employment for many people.
From it, a lot of new and useful technologies develop.
It cam stimulate other scientific and technological advances.
Arguments against:
Page 79
The money would have been better spent on health care,

education, the poor and needy, and so on.
Saving the money spent could have allowed a reduction in

taxation.
If we want to spend resources on scientific research, then it

should be spent on things that can lead to clear benefits, such
as cures for diseases.


page 1
Space travel has a huge carbon footprint and should be

opposed on environmental grounds.
56 All are very well established and generally agreed by astronomers.

So they come close to what we normally require to call something
a fact. They are certainly not guesses, if by that you mean there
are no good grounds for considering them to be true. Some of
them may, of course, be revised the figures might be reviewed.
But it seems unlikely they will be adjusted very radically.
On the other hand, none can be observed or measured directly.
Many assumptions are involved in arriving at all these statements.
The evidence has to be interpreted. So perhaps they should really
be seen as hypotheses albeit quite widely accepted ones.
They are not theories. A theory is a general explanation, often
based on a model, that accounts for a wide range of specific
events.
57 It is clearly much greater, and more strongly supported by

evidence. Just think of our knowledge of the planets, their moons,
the Sun and other stars, other galaxies, ideas of how the Universe
came into being and when, the magnitude of space and much
more besides. Much of the detail has been established in the past
five hundred years.
Has this affected how we live? Maybe for some. Appreciating the
vastness of space may make some see our existence as more
special, whilst some may take the opposite point of view, that it
seems unlikely we are unique in the Universe. Most of us find it
difficult to appreciate the vastness of the Universe as science
describes it, and the huge span of time since the big bang. We
derive our sense of purpose from events and relationships around
us focusing on the more local.
Page 80


page 1
Chapter 11 Are we alone in the universe?
1
Extreme conditions: hot dry, desert conditions; very high altitudes

where the land is rocky and cold, in the sulfurous craters of active
volcanoes.
Possible questions include:

Why has the scientific communities attitude to the search for life
on other planets changed so greatly in the last ten years?
In which aspects of this research are UK research teams
particularly strong and why?
What are the possible benefits to the UK from funding research
into this field?
There were no particular reasons for keeping the meeting

confidential. Science journalists are good communicators and so
can help to translate the language of scientists into a language
accessible to politicians and the wider public. Reports about the
meeting in newspapers and other media could help to tell a
positive story about science and alert people to the work of UK
scientists in this field. This is a topic of wide public interest but it
is not highly sensitive politically.
The science minister is responsible to the strength of the scientific

research base in the UK and needs to understand the strengths
and weaknesses of UK research in different fields.
This is on a geological timescale in which the Earth is 4.5 billion

years old.
Scientists are now confident that they can detect earth-like

planets around other stars. They know that life evolved on Earth
within the first 0.5 billion of its 4.5 billion year life which leads
them to propose that given the right conditions, life will emerge
anywhere in the universe.
Mars was once warmer and wetter than it is now and so there is a
good chance that there was once life on Mars. Europa, though icy,
has a core warmed by tidal forces.
Page 81


page 1
They are assuming that other life forms have evolved in conditions
similar to those on Earth. So they are assuming, for example, that
life will be found where the conditions are such that water is
usually a liquid.
See the diagram at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitable_zone
or click on Solar System at:
http://odin.physastro.mnsu.edu/~eskridge/astr115/week10.html
The habitable zone lies between Venus and Mars and
encompasses the Earth.
10 Spectroscopes can detect and analyse radiation from stars and

other objects in the universe. Different types of spectroscope can
analyse light from different regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Atoms and molecules interact in distinctive ways with
radiation and this allows scientists to use spectra to analyse
distant objects chemically. Movement of objects causes the
position of spectral lines to shift (the Doppler shift) and so some
spectra can give information about the speed and direction in
which astronomical objects move.
11 Living things cannot be seen directly on distant planets. Life is
detected by its effects on the planetary environment, especially
the atmosphere. These changes cannot be detected by land-based
telescopes because the related (infra-red) radiations are absorbed
by the Earths atmosphere. The light from the atmosphere of a
distant planet is very, very faint and can only be detect by a large
array of telescopes in space.
12 Stars are bright enough to be detected at a large distance by our
telescopes. Planets are invisible at these large distances. However
a planet passing in front of a star can mean that the light from the
star gets dimmer, just as the light from the Sun gets dimmer when
it is eclipsed by the Moon. Also, a large planet has a gravitational
attraction for its nearest star. This can be big enough to make the
star seem to wobble as the planet goes round its orbit. This
wobble affects the frequency of the light from the star just as the
pitch of a siren on an emergency vehicle changes as it drives past.
Instruments attached to telescopes can detect and record this
change of frequency.
13 The public is interested in stories about life in other parts of the
universe. People are intrigued by the idea of other forms of life.
Gliese 581c was the first distant planet to be discovered which
might be in the habitable zone of its star. So this was an exciting
discovery.
Page 82


page 1
14 In the story about Goldilocks and the three bears, Goldilocks

tastes the porridge in three bowls. One is too hot. One is too cold.
The porridge in the third bowl is just right and she eats it all up.
Liquid water is a key ingredient for life as we know it. Gliese 581c
was found to be at the Goldilocks distance which is not too close
and not too far from its star to keep water on its surface from
freezing or vaporizing away.
15 The Earth rotates and ground-based telescopes rotate with it and
so they cannot be directed continuously at a particular direction in
space.
16 The aliens might start by studying the atmosphere of the Earth.
Detecting oxygen, or ozone, would be a strong sign that Earth is
an unusual planet since, in the absence of life, oxygen quickly
disappears from atmospheres. Detecting liquid water would show
that the conditions on earth are not extreme. They could also
detect the various forms of electromagnetic radiation that we use
for communications. The modulation of the signals might indicate
that they have been transmitted as messages.
17 The combination of oxygen, ozone and water with carbon dioxide
is a strong atmospheric signature of a thriving biosphere. In the
absence of living things, oxygen rapidly reacts with other
elements and compounds so that it is removed from the
atmosphere.
18 Ministers want to know that the grants, from public money,
awarded to scientists by UK Research Councils are supporting
work that is worthwhile, effective and of international significance.
Scientists need to demonstrate the positive outcomes of their
work in order to secure future funding.
19 The answer here is a matter of opinion. You might want to weigh
up the chance of success on the one hand (more likely if the quest
is for habitable planets) against the significance of the findings
(which is greater if the research were to detect intelligent life).
20 a)
The discovery of the planet Gliese 5821c helped to validate
the predictions made by scientists about the existence of other
habitable planets and the feasibility of detecting them.
b)
The theorising about life on other habitable planets is all based on

scientific explanations developed from the study of life and the
environment on Earth. Similarly the techniques devised for
detecting habitable planets is based on well established scientific
ideas.
c)
The search for habitable planets has only become feasible

because scientists have developed new techniques of
Page 83


page 1
investigation such as the various forms of spectroscopy and

telescopes in space. The search for life on other planets is
informed by the work of biologists, earth scientists and others.
d)
Ten years before the meeting described in this chapter, scientists

had been very sceptical about the announcement of the discovery
of a planet of the size of Jupiter. Generally scientists were
reluctant to accept that other habitable planets could be detected,
or even that there is life elsewhere in the universe. The search of
intelligent life was not regarded as a part of respectable
mainstream science. As this chapter shows, this has now changed
and this type of research has become accepted.
e)
Some scientific research is conducted for its utility but some

largely out of curiosity. It is in the interest of the UK to be involved
in research programmes that involve telescopes on space
satellites because of their significance for advanced
telecommunications. Scientists in this field acquire valuable
insight into the analysis of data. UK scientists earn the right to be
involved in projects of this kind through their contribution to the
development of instrumental methods or of techniques of data
analysis.
f)
The public interest in the possibility of alien life forms means that
research to find habitable planets is reported by the media. So the
specialised research that identified planet Gliese 581c was
translated into a popular story by the media with the help of
analogies such as the notion of the Goldilocks distance.
g)
Civil servants and ministers might find it hard to justify the money
spent on this type of research in the absence of media and public
interest.
Page 84


As SIS Textbook AnswersAV

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

As SIS Textbook AnswersAV

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 1 questions

Semmelweis suggested that an infectious agent found in corpses

Chlorinated lime is an effective disinfectant; it kills the germs

Semmelweiss was young and inexperienced. He was proposing a

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 1 questions

Preventive measures are very effective in reducing the incidence

In developing countries many women give birth at home, assisted

Lack of either sanitation or rubbish disposal made the air smell

By washing all infected sewage into the Thames, he actually

11 If the infectious agent multiplied in an infected person it would

The Nuffield Foundation, 2008

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 1 questions

The Nuffield Foundation, 2008

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 1 questions

20 The front line barriers to infection shown in Figure 1.11 sometimes

The Nuffield Foundation, 2008

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 1 questions

The loss of new ideas and the discouragement of young scientists

27 Similarities: the basic principle, of controlled exposure of the body

The Nuffield Foundation, 2008

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 1 questions

Differences: Jenner did not need to find a way of weakening the

Microbes: Snows theory about invisible infectious agents; Kochs

c) and d) Immune system and protection by infection: longstanding

The Nuffield Foundation, 2008

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 1 questions

Controlling factors: Pasteurs experiments with silk worms and his

Plausible mechanism: Kochs work to identify bacteria and to show

Theories involving invisible objects: Snows theory of there being

Imagination and conjecture: Snows theory of the cause of cholera

Testing predictions: Jenners prediction of the results of inoculation

Influence of earlier work: the influence of Jenners work on Pasteur

Desire to be first with a discovery: notably Pasteur in all his work.

The Nuffield Foundation, 2008

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 2 questions

It is easier to believe in germs once you can actually see them.

Bacteria start reproducing as soon as they enter the body and

Semmelwiess observed that childbed fever was spread by doctors

The most straightforward way of showing the causal link would be

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 2 questions

technique could be used on animals if there is a species which is

Transmission by living creatures: destruction of habitats of carriers

Mass vaccination for all children is compulsory in some European

The Nuffield Foundation, 2008

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 2 questions

This issue is discussed in a report from the Nuffield Council on

Fleming is famous because he was the first person to recognise an

8 a) The more often bacteria are exposed to an antibiotic, the more

The problem of antibiotic resistance was not appreciated when the

If the use of antibiotics were restricted to situations in which they

TB is airborne therefore close contact increases the rate of

10 The differences between the UK and countries where TB is still

The Nuffield Foundation, 2008

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 2 questions

1940 to 1950 is the period during and immediately after the

e) Mass X-ray screening meant that those with TB could be

The Nuffield Foundation, 2008

AS Science in Society answers to chapter 2 questions

work. This means that where TB is common, there are many

Worldwide measures which might have prevented resistance

16 Poorly supervised TB treatment might lead to widespread

18 Overcrowding in refugee camps. Contact between patients and a

The Nuffield Foundation, 2008