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UNIVERSITY of GUYANA
FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

NAME: Jaikeshan TAKCHANDRA

REG #: 13/0933/1323
COURSE: CIV 3202 Water & Wastewater Engineering
ASSIGNMENT 3 Email Questions
LECTURER: Ms. S. Eastman
DATE: 30th March, 2014

Department of Civil Engineering

2015

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Disadvantages of prolonged storage of water

Disadvantage
Microbial proliferation: Macrophytes (rooted
aquatic plants) and free floating plankton plants
(phytoplankton such as algae), and bacteria may
become colossal in number in stored water
supplies over extended periods of time,
especially if the water is exposed to even small
amounts of sunlight. If the water contains
sufficient amounts of nutrient minerals to support
these aquatic plant growths, the plant growth
may become faster. This is characteristic of most
lake water sources, containing igneous rock
minerals. The plant and pathogens can alter the
waters quality by changing its color, taste and
safety over the storage period. They can also
attach themselves to the wall of the storage
medium and feed on any form of organic matter,
minerals and planktons in the water. This fuels
their reproduction and a balanced system can be
well established within a few months.

Solution / treatment

Disinfection prior to storage with sparing amounts

of chlorine. Also, filtering the water may remove
algae and planktons since they are quite
macroscopic and will be trapped in the filter. It the
storage medium is a conservancy, disinfection can
be done prior to use.

Chemical alteration: Water in close and

extended contact with the material of the storage
container (e.g. plastic or paint) may experience
alterations in taste and odour. This is as a result
of chemical intrusion from the material and may
pose health risks if the material is toxic or
carcinogenic nature. Increased risks exist where
the container is exposed to direct sunlight
direct sunlight can foster the breakdown of
polymeric hydrocarbon chains resulting and
increased release of chemicals in the water.

International health organisations have placed

emphasis on the types and composition of certain
types of plastic materials that are suitable and
recommended for water storage. Storage medium
made with these materials are recommended for
usage.

Deoxygenated water: Water that has been

stored for long period of time in a closed system
may experience a reduction in the oxygen
content to the point where the water has less
than 5 parts per million oxygen. This is not a
matter of concern but it does result in a
profoundly noticeable flat taste in the water.

Mixing of the water before use will eliminate the

taste and introduce oxygen in the water again

Risk of contamination: Stored water is always

at a risk of contamination since there is no
special need and emphasis placed on monitoring
stored water on a routine basis. As such, there is
a potential risk of contamination of the water that

Using a disinfecting agent in excess will prove to

be effective since it will remain within the water
and remove any forms of contamination. The
disinfectant can be introduced such that it remains
even after a few weeks.

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will propagate throughout the storage period.

Water placed next to sewage lines, fertilizers,
and even livestock (such as pigs and cows) is at
risk for contamination. There is no simple way of
testing for such contaminations and the question
of whether or not the water was contaminated
could be problematic.
Changing cycle: Some storage medium for
water are such that the water needs to be
changed and replenished within a certain time
frame (usually 6 to 12 months). This can incur a
lot of time and money if is required that the water
be stored in large quantities.

Research on the storage container before

implementation will help to reduce the effects of
this problem.

Unexpected damage: Stored water that has

been left unattended for long periods is at risk for
unexpected damage which can potentially
deplete all the water supplies in the container
(e.g. a large storage tank that serves a desert
village in drought season). Mechanical damage
from a passing vehicle, or even a leaky container
can cause a reduction in the water supplies.

Some containers can be strategically placed in

secured locations (e.g. a cellar) or can be
equipped with some form of external reinforcement
or securing mesh. Also, durable and impact
resistance materials can be used.

Lake Stratification
Epilimnion, thermocline and hypolimnion are characteristics of a climatic event that occurs
in the southern hemisphere of the earth each year. This phenomenon is called stratification and it
takes effect in lakes and reservoirs, whereby the water separates in several density-temperature
profiles. Changes in temperatures and density in the water in these systems are the main cause for
stratification, and as a result, the term thermal stratification is more common. The relationship
between water density and temperature is such that an increase in temperature will result in a
decrease in water density until it reaches 4C where the density decreases for deceasing
temperature, enabling ice to float on water.
To understand how these profiles form, seasonal changes must be considered:
Pre-spring: Before the beginning of the spring season, the ice from winter has just begun to
melt on the lake or reservoir surface (lake will be used for further discussion). This melting
of ice will continue until spring.
Spring: After all the ice has been melted, the water in the lake will have generally a constant
temperature throughout the lake from the surface to the bottom. Wind action allows slow
circulation and mixing of the water via currents that move from the surface to the bottom
and back up. This allows for the transport of oxygen to the bottom of the lake and is termed
spring overturn. As spring progresses, the sun begins to warm the waters surface (per se

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the first several feet since solar radiation decreases with depth). Due to the temperaturedensity relationships mentioned before, this warm layer of water remains on top of the
cooler water below it, forming is what is known as the epilimnion and it has similar
temperature throughout. The cooler water layer below this is called the hypolimnion. These
two layers are separated by a layer of water which changes rapidly in temperature with
depth. This changing layer is called the thermocline (or metalimnion).
These three layers of water with distinct temperature characteristics is what is happens in
thermal stratification.
Lake stratification can be limited and managed by installing several aeration equipment in
the lake medium. They function and reduce lake stratification by mixing air in the water in
the stratified layers by making the layers more thermally stable. Aeration will also eliminate
some of the problems of eutrophication and will act as a water quality enhancer.
The following table is the summarized characteristics for the epilimnion, thermocline and
hypolimnion.
Layer

Epilimnion

Hypolimnion

Thermocline

Average location
(depth)

<25 ft.

>40 ft.

(25-40) ft.

Oxygen level

Balanced with
atmosphere

Very low
(stressful)

Adequate

Description
Some amount of turbidity due to presence
of algae brought up by water currents from
lake bottom ideal for algae growth.
Algae growth usually results in greenish
hue to this layer
Bacterial decay of nutrients and organic
matter aiding in low oxygen levels
Sparingly turbid and lack of sunlight and
photosynthesis
Maybe temporary layer or may not occur at
all.
Has high entropy and its agitated nature
allows for the up drafting of algae and
nutrients to the epilimnion

Water in the hypolimnion would prove to be most suitable for water use in my opinion. This is
because of the absence of most planktons and algae. However, the layer is known to have low
oxygen levels and amounts of iron, manganese is expected to be present. These constituents might
be a limiting factor in the use of water from this layer. If this occurs, water may be taken from the
thermocline.
Water from the epilimnion is not selected since the presence of large amounts of algae and
planktons might cause eutrophication almost year round (except in winter). This makes the
purification process of the water timelier.

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FIG 1 lake stratification in the summer showing expected temperature differences Source:
(Shaw, 2014)

Selecting optimum coagulant dosage

The optimal dosage of coagulant required in the clarification processes is dependent on a
few parameters, mainly:

The pH of the water to be treated (essentially taken as the raw water alkalinity)
The amount of turbidity present
The nature of the turbid particle

This means that the water quality assessment is essential before the commencement of any
coagulation process. These factors will then determine the subsequent mixing energies
required to carry out the coagulation process, and whether there exist a need for coagulant
aids. Typically, low turbidity waters require coagulant aids in addition to the use of
primary coagulants, and requires more turbulence or mixing to achieve maximum charge
neutralization of the particles. Higher turbidity waters can be effectively treated with just
the use of a primary coagulant. Furthermore, additives may need to be added to stabilize
the pH water during the coagulation process in order to optimize the functioning
conditions of the coagulant throughout the process the pH of the raw water will need
determine the extent to which this is needed.
The evaluation of the aforementioned coagulant parameters can be achieved by using the
jar test. The jar test is one of the most popular means of conducting these tests. The tests
conducted are as follows:

Member re-filtration experiment

Jar test filtration experiment
Jar settling experiment

In addition, the pH is tested using a cation exchange experiment such triple-titration.

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Filtration
Intake structures

Intake
retrieve water for supply system

Chlorine

Disinfection

Storage

important to make the water safe to

drink

allows for buffering of distribution

system
keeps water in potable state until
distribution

Sedimentation
Screeing
prevent damge to equipment
prepare water for treatment

Coagulation
necessary for preparing colloidal
particles for flux formation
removal of colloidal size particles

final step of clarification that removes

particle from the previous steps
make water palatable

Distribution
provide water to consumers

Flocculation
very importation for the formation of
large enough fluxs to foster
sedimentation
allows patriculate flox to sediment
easily

Rapid mixing

FIG 2 Surface water treatment process chart

Intake
Retrieves water from deep well

Distribution
Aeration
Softens water by removal of iron
and manganese
Removes carbon dioxide,
hydroden sulfide and other
constituents

Filtration
Aids in the removal of organic
matter and other particles that
affect turbidity

Takes water to consumers

Storage
Provides buffer for distribution
system by safely storing water

Chlorination
Renders the water safe to drink
by dissinfection

FIG 3 Groundwater treatment (conventional) process chart

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References

Lee, G. F., 1965. Effects on Intake Location on Water quality. [Online]

Available at: http://www.gfredlee.com/intake.html
[Accessed 27 3 2015].

Loosdrecht, M. v., 2014. Coagulation & Floocculation in Water and Wastewater

Treatment. [Online]
Available at:
http://www.iwawaterwiki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Articles/CoagulationandFlocculatio
ninWaterandWastewaterTreatment
[Accessed 28 03 2015].

Shaw, B., 2014. Understanding lake data. [Online]

Available at: http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr-ap/weal/Documents/G3582.pdf
[Accessed 27 3 2015].