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Livello Network

Network Layer Design Isues

Applicazione

Unit di trasmissione dati a livello applicazione

Applicazione

Trasporto

Unit di trasmissione dati a livello trasporto

Trasporto

Limite della sottorete di interconnessione

Rete

Pacchetto

Rete

Pacchetto

Rete

Pacchetto

Rete

Data link

Frame

Data link

Frame

Data link

Frame

Data link

Fisico

Bit

Fisico

Bit

Fisico

Bit

HOST A

Router

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Router

Fisico
HOST B

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Store-and-Forward Packet Switching

Store-and-Forward Packet Switching

Services Provided to the Transport Layer
Implementation of Connectionless Service
Implementation of Connection-Oriented
Service
Comparison of Virtual-Circuit and Datagram
Subnets

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Implementation of Connectionless Service

Routing within a diagram subnet.

The environment of the network layer protocols.

fig 5-1

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Comparison of Virtual-Circuit and

Datagram Subnets

Implementation of ConnectionOriented Service

Routing within a virtual-circuit subnet.

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Routing

Routing

Each node in a WAN is a router

that accepts an input packet,
examines the destination address,
and forwards the packet on to a
particular telecommunications line.
How does a router decide which
line to transmit on?
A router must select the one
transmission line that will best
provide a path to the destination
and in an optimal manner.
Often many possible routes exist
between sender and receiver.

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Routing

The subnet with its nodes

and telecommunication links
is essentially a weighted
network graph.
The edges, or
telecommunication links,
between nodes, have a cost
associated with them.
The cost could be a delay
cost, a queue size cost, a
limiting speed, or simply a
dollar amount for using that
link.

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Routing Algorithms

The

routing method, or algorithm, chosen to

move packets through a network should be:

Conflict between fairness and optimality.

Optimal, so the least cost can be found

Fair, so all packets are treated equally
Robust, in case link or node failures occur and the
network has to reroute traffic.
Not too robust so that the chosen paths do not
oscillate too quickly between troubled spots.

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Least Cost Routing Algorithm

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Flooding Routing

Dijkstras least cost

algorithm finds all
possible paths between
two locations.
By identifying all possible
paths, it also identifies
the least cost path.
The algorithm can be
applied to determine the
least cost path between
any pair of nodes.

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When a packet arrives at a node,

the node sends a copy of the
packet out every link except the
link the packet arrived on.
Traffic grows very quickly when
every node floods the packet.
To limit uncontrolled growth, each
packet has a hop count. Every
time a packet hops, its hop count
is incremented. When a packets
hop count equals a global hop
limit, the packet is discarded.

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Centralized Routing

Distributed Routing

One routing table is kept at a central node.

Whenever a node needs a routing decision, the central node is consulted.
To survive central node failure, the routing table should be kept at a backup
location.
The central node should be designed to support a high amount of traffic
consisting of routing requests.

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Isolated Routing
node uses only local information to create
its own routing table.
Advantage - routing information does not have
to be passed around the network.
Disadvantage - a nodes individual routing
information could be inaccurate, or out of date.

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adaptive routing, routing tables can

change to reflect changes in the network
Static routing does not allow the routing tables
to change.
Static routing is simpler but does not adapt to
network congestion or failures.

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Congestion Prevention Policies

Policies that affect congestion.

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With

Network Congestion
When a network or a part of a
network becomes so saturated
with data packets that packet
transfer is noticeably impeded,
network congestion occurs.
Preventive measure include
providing backup nodes and links
and preallocation of resources.
To handle network congestion, you
can perform buffer preallocation,
choke packets, or permit systems.
Forward and backward explicit
congestion control also used

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Adaptive Routing versus Static Routing

Each

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Each node maintains its own routing table.

No central site holds a global table.
Somehow each node has to share information with other nodes
so that the individual routing tables can be created.
Possible problem with individual routing tables holding
inaccurate information.

5-26

When too much traffic is offered,

congestion sets in and
performance degrades sharply.

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Quality of Service

Requirements

Before making a connection, user requests how much

bandwidth is needed, or if connection needs to be
real-time
Network checks to see if it can satisfy user request
If user request can be satisfied, connection is
established
If a user does not need a high bandwidth or real-time,
a simpler, cheaper connection is created

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How stringent the quality-of-service requirements are.

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Buffering

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Internetworking

Smoothing the output stream by buffering

packets.

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Connecting Networks

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How Networks Differ

How Networks Can Be Connected
Concatenated Virtual Circuits
Connectionless Internetworking
Tunneling
Internetwork Routing
Fragmentation
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How Networks Differ

Some of the many ways networks can differ.

5-43

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How Networks Can Be

Connected

Concatenated Virtual Circuits

(a) Two Ethernets connected by a

switch.
(b) Two Ethernets connected by routers.

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Internetworking using concatenated virtual

circuits.

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Connectionless
Internetworking

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Tunneling
Tunneling a packet from Paris to London.

A connectionless internet.

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Tunneling (2)

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Internetwork Routing

Tunneling a car from France to England.

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(a) An internetwork. (b) A graph of the

internetwork.

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Fragmentation

Fragmentation (2)

Fragmentation when the elementary data size is 1 byte.

(a) Original packet, containing 10 data bytes.
(b) Fragments after passing through a network with maximum
packet size of 8 payload bytes plus header.
(c) Fragments after passing through a size 5 gateway.

(a) Transparent fragmentation.

(b) Nontransparent fragmentation.
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The Network Layer in the Internet

Design Principles for Internet

The

IP Protocol
IP Addresses
Internet Control Protocols
OSPF The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
BGP The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol
Internet Multicasting
Mobile IP
IPv6
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Collection of Subnetworks

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Make sure it works.

Keep it simple.
Make clear choices.
Exploit modularity.
Expect heterogeneity.
Avoid static options and parameters.
Look for a good design; it need not be perfect.
Be strict when sending and tolerant when receiving.
Think about scalability.
Consider performance and cost.

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Communication in the Internet

The transport layer takes data streams and breaks

them up into datagrams
Each datagram is transmitted through the Internet
(possibly fragmented into smaller units)
When all the pieces get to the destination machines
they are reassembled by the network layer to the
original datagram which is then handed to the
transport layer
The transport layer inserts the received datagram into
the receiving process input stream.

The Internet is an interconnected collection of many networks.

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Progression of a packet from one network to another

The Internet Protocol (IP)

IP

prepares a packet for transmission across

the Internet.
The IP header is encapsulated onto a transport
data packet.
The IP packet is then passed to the next layer
where further network information is
encapsulated onto it.

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The Internet Protocol (IP)

Using

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The IP Protocol

IP, a subnet router:

The IPv4 (Internet Protocol) header.

Makes routing decision based on the destination

address.
May have to fragment the datagram into smaller
datagrams (very rare) using Fragment Offset.
May determine that the current datagram has been
hopping around the network too long and delete it
(Time to Live).

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The IP Protocol (2)

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IP Addresses

Some of the IP options.

All devices connected to the Internet have a 32-bit IP

address associated with it.
Think of the IP address as a logical address (possibly
temporary), while the 48-bit address on every NIC is the
physical, or permanent address.

5-54

Computers, networks and routers use the 32-bit

binary address, but a more readable form is the
dotted decimal notation.
For example, the 32-bit binary address
10000000 10011100 00001110 00000111
translates to 128.156.14.7

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There are basically four types of IP addresses: Classes

A, B, C and D.

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IP Addresses

IP Addresses (2)

IP address formats.

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Special IP addresses.

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Subnets

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IP Subnet Masking

A campus network consisting of LANs for various

departments.

Sometimes you have a large number of IP address to

manage.
By using subnet masking, you can break the host ID
portion of the address into a subnet ID and host ID.
Some examples:
the subnet mask 255.255.255.0 applied to a class B address
will break the host ID (normally 16 bits) into an 8-bit subnet
ID and an 8-bit host ID;
the subnet mask 255.255.252.0 applied to a class B address
will break the host ID (normally 16 bits) into an 6-bit subnet
ID and an 10-bit host ID.

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CIDR Classless InterDomain

Routing

Subnets (2)

A set of IP address assignments.

5-59

Class B network subnetted into 64 subnets.

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Network Address Translation (NAT)

NAT lets a router represent an entire local area

network to the Internet as a single IP address.
All traffic leaving this LAN appears as originating from
a global IP address.
All traffic coming into this LAN uses this global IP
address.
This security feature allows a LAN to hide all the
workstation IP addresses from the Internet.
Since the outside world cannot see into the LAN, you
do not need to use registered IP addresses on the
inside LAN.

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Network Address Translation (NAT)

We can use the following blocks of addresses for private use:

10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255

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When a user on inside sends a packet to the outside, the NAT

interface changes the users inside address to the global IP
address. This change is stored in a cache.
When the response comes back, the NAT looks in the cache
and switches the addresses back.
No cache entry? The packet is dropped. Unless NAT has a
service table of fixed IP address mappings. This service table
allows packets to originate from the outside.

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Internet Control Message

Protocol

NAT Network Address Translation

Placement and operation of a NAT box.

The principal ICMP message types.

5-61

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ARP The Address Resolution

Protocol

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Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol

Three interconnected /24 networks: two

Ethernets and an FDDI ring.

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Operation of DHCP.

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The Main IPv6 Header

Extension Headers

The IPv6 fixed header (required).

IPv6 extension headers.

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Extension Headers (2)

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Extension Headers (3)

The hop-by-hop extension header for large

datagrams (jumbograms).
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The extension header for routing.

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