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AN OVERVIEW OF PEDAGICAL TECHNIQUES

VIBRATO FOR THE FLUTE

BY

DEBORAH R. RIBELIN
B.M.

University of Denver, 1983

HYPOTHESES

Through a study of flute vibrato, including

the historical and pedagogical aspects,
and advanced level flute teacher will acquire
the necessary knowledge to direct students
in developing their own individual vibrato.

THESIS

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of Masters of
Music Education in the Graduate School of
Columbus College, Columbus, Georgia, 1987.

COLUMBUS COLLEGE
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MUSIC

WE HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS BY

DEBORAH R. RIBELIN

ENTITLED

AN OVERVIEW OF PEDAGOGICAL TECHNIQUES OF VIBRATO FOR

THE FLUTE
BE ACCEPTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF

MASTER OF MUSIC EDUCATION

Table of Contents
I.

Introduction
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

II.

The History of Vibrato

A.
B.
C.
D.

III.

C.

Baroque, Classical

The Use of Vibrato in the Music of J.S.Bach

The Use of Vibrato in the Classical Concerto's of W.A.
Mozart
The Use of Vibrato in Avant-Garde Flute Music

A Scientific Approach to Vibrato - Dr. Gartner's Book

A.
B.
C.

V.

The First Uses of Vibrato

Vibrato Techniques on the Early Wooden Flutes
19th Century References
Stylistic Norms Affecting Vibrato in the Late 19th and
20th Centuries

Stylistic Practices of Flute Vibrato in

and Avant-Garde Music
A.
B.

IV.

Need for Study

Purpose of the Study
Organization of the Study
Definition and Abbreviations Used
Limitation of the Study

Experimental Technique
Anatomy used in Breathing and Support
The Physical Process Involved in Vibrato

Vibrato Production and Pedagogy

A.
B.
C.
D.

Diaphragm Vibrato
Breathing and Support
Throat Vibrato
Combination Vibrato

A Comparison Study of Selected Vibrato That Are

Pedagogically Transferable to the Flute

VI.

A.
B.

VII.

Vocal Vibrato
Violin Vibrato

Summary and Conclusions

A.
B.

Conclusions
Suggestions for Further Study

REFERENCES

List of Figure Numbers

Page

Figure No.

Le chevron - Coche's flute vibration

Figure No.

Brahms 's

Figure No.

Fingal's Cave Overture excerpt

Figure No.

Prelude To the Afternoon of a Faun

Figure No.

The diaphragm - by Gartner

Figure No.

Internal Muscles used when playing the Flute

Figure

No.

Symphony No.

excerpt

The middle layer of the chest and abdominal

musculature

Figure No.

The inner layer of the chest and abdominal

musculature

Figure No.

Muscle Groups

Figure No. 10

Gartner's Table

Figure No.

Expiration and Diaphragmatic Inspiration

11

Figure No. 12

Table of experimental subjects

Figure No. 13

The diaphragm probe

Figure No. 14

Graph Tracing at Muscle Groups

Figure No. 15

Flute Electrodes on Embouchure Muscles

Figure No. 16

Intake of Air diagram

Figure No. 17

Amplitude diagram

Figure No. 18

Diaphragm Thrust Exercises

Figure No. 19

Diaphragm Vibrato Exercise

Figure No. 20

Vocal Cords

Gartner

Gartner

Gartner

Gartner

J.
Chapter

NEED FOR THE STUDY

drawing on

teaching flute vibrato is the teacher

method for

The usual

his past

experience and

how he

was taught vibrato.

Since this method has allowed the teacher to produce an effective

student's results

vibrato, the

his teacher's

similar to

experienced
vibrato,

teacher

aware

be

process involved in vibrato.

complete

understanding

the

of

used

the

the same

of

teaching of vibrato, rather

would

knowledge
than

only

different

types of

vibrato, and the physical

The student

and

or at least

It would be valuable for the

vibrato.

to

history,

its

should be

of

the

imitating

receive a

then

practices

and

his teacher's

vibrato.

There

are

limited

include a

vibrato that
technique and

of compiled studies on flute

number

thorough evaluation

the physical

process.

Since vibrato

component of a flutist tone, it is necessary

knowledge as

possible before

of both pedagogical
is a major

to acquire

as much

attempting to teach flute vibrato.

The creates a need for this study.

Purpose of the Study

This paper is a
vibrato.

After

historical and

reviewing

the

research, the advanced flute

in

advising

his

vibrato techniques.

student

pedagogical study

concepts

teacher will
on

developing

and

of flute

sources of this

be more knowledgeable

their

own individual

2-

Organization of Study
This paper consists of eight chapters.

Chapter

is

the

Introduction which states the need for the study and its purpose,
organization, definition, and limitations.

Chapter

presents the History of Vibrato on the flute.

with vibrato

history begins

vibrato used on the

ornament, progressing to the

as an

wooden

early

The

concluding with

and

flutes,

vibrato in the 20th century.

Chapter

deals with stylistic practices of flute vibrato in

Baroque, Classical, and Avant-Garde Music.

Dr.

summarizes A

Chapter

Jochen

Gartner.

to Vibrato , by

Dr. Gartner conducted physical tests and

experiments on a European
source in

Scientific Approach

Gartner's book

flutist.

which extensive

is the only

experimental testing on flute vibrato

has been conducted.

Chapter
of this

vibrato.

deals with vibrato production and pedagogy.

chapter is

focused on

The three main

pedagogical application

types
are:

Most

the pedagogical aspects of flute

flute

of

vibrato

reviewed for

diaphragm vibrato, throat vibrato,

and combination vibrato.

Chapter

is a

comparison study

three types of vibrato selected are:

vibrato, and French

discussed from
vibrato, the
music,

horn

uses of

soloist

versus

concepts to flute.

Each

type

perspectives:

vibrato, vibrato

ensemble,

and

vibrato.

vibrato,

vocal

vibrato.

the following

of selected

of

The

violin

vibrato is

the development of

in the

finally

different era of
the transfer of

Chapter
chapter

also

presents

suggests

summary

the

that

and

conclusions.

This

further research is needed in this

area.

Limitations of the Study

This paper does not attempt present any conclusions based on
an

experimental

research.

study.

It

is based completely on historical

Therefore, it is not possible to know what

results would

the actual

be from a student who received vibrato instruction

from this type of research.

This study does

not

consider

every

type

of instrumental

vibrato that could possibly be applicable to the flute.

the study does cover three types

of vibrato

production or the teaching to flute vibrato.

that relate

However,
to the

H
Chapter II

THE HISTORY OF VIBRATO

The techniques of vibrato production may include one or more

of

the

following

variables

of

These

vibrato.

three basic

variables are pitch, intensity, timbre or tone.

The variation

of pitch or pitch vibrato was probably one of

the earliest types of vibrato, beginning around 1707 (Kotteterre,

1968, p.

29).

produced by rolling the flute in and out

It was

while playing a single note.

The pitch variance was

believed to

be both above and below the basic tone.

Intensity vibrato probably was first used in the Baroque era

as a type of crescendo and

diminuendo on

a single

this procedure is commonly known as a swell.

Today

The basic component

of intensity vibrato is air pressure (Toff, 1985,

flutist would

note.

p.

106).

The

start with a small amount of air pressure and then

crescendo on the same note without taking a breath.

Some 19th century sources discuss timbre
vibrato.

Timbre or tone vibrato evolves from intensity vibrato.

The intensity and timbre

material from

vibrato

are

which the flute is made.

thicker than the modern silver flute,

intense.

The wooden

flute tends

very

same way.

flute affects

dependent

upon the

The wooden flute is much

thus making

the tone less

to absorb the vibration while

the silver flute repels the vibrations to a

The wooden

in relationship to

much greater extent.

the timbre or tone vibrato in much the

In pitch vibrato (the rolling in and out of the flute)

and timbre

vibrato, the

wooden flute absorbs the sound and does

not project it the way the silver flute does.

we know

it today

is much

Timbre vibrato as

more effective on the silver than the

early wooden flutes.

Vibrato as Wind Player^s Ornament

In studying the concept of flute vibrato, it is be necessary
to

understand

origin

the

of

vibrato which is included in the

history section of this thesis.

of vibrato

The use

the wind players in the sixteenth century.

By

century vibrato had become common practice.

One

documents

that

references

century is Music
Agricola'

1528.

musical

of

of the earliest

Deudsch ,

by

Marit

Agricola in

book is one of the earliest books published on

instrument.

collection

seventeenth

use of vibrato in the sixteenth

the

Instrumental!

the

began with

Agricola'

Sebastian

book

Getutsch

Music

Virdun's

According to Osborne, "Agricola

really

is

used Virdun's

revised

of

1511.

plates of various

instrument but added his own text, which he changed and augmented
in subsequent editions of 1530, 1542, and 1545" (Osborne 1962, p.
121 ).

Agricola 's comments

on vibrato

appear in the 1542 and 1545

editions in a discussion of the Swiff Fife.

cylindrical
sizes:

six-hole

instrument

which

descant, alto, tenor, and bass.

is

The Swiff Fife

is a

illustrated in four

Agricola states:

When playing the fife bear well in mind to

blow it with a trembling wind the way they
mostly teach it in the case of the Polish
violin, as trembling ornaments the song. Here
too it can never be wrong (Osborne, 1962, p. 122).

fc

In 1636, Mersenne writes about vibrato

his book "Harmoni Universelle."

organ

to the

which

tremolo,

vibrations per

as a

tremolo in

type of

He compares this vibrato tremolo

has

frequency

about four

of

Mersenne suggests that the organ vibrato

second.

should be a model vibrato for wind players (Lind, 1974,

p.

28).

Vibrato on the Early Wooden Flutes, 1707

The Use of Finger Vibrato
In the 18th century vibrato on

acquire

begun

to

books

published

vibrato was

instruction

Principles de

Romain in 1707.

wooden flutes had

One of the first flute method

recognition.

with

the early

on

the

18th

century flute

taversiere by Hotteterre

la flute

.le

Kotteterre devotes one chapter to the discussion

of two ornaments relating to vibrato. The first is the battement

and the second is the

is produced

The battement is a trill which

f lattement .

by covering only the edge of the hole below the note

played, or by completely covering the tone-hole immediately below

the

note

played.

flattement was produced by turning the

The

flute backward and forward. This

lowered.

Hotteterre

also

recommends

vibrato method for the recorder and

12-125).

According to

the

causes

the

pitch

to be

battement and flattement

the oboe

(Osborne, 1962, P.

Osborne this type of finger vibrato also

appears in the method books by Corrette (1735) and Mahau (1759).

The Use of Vibrato Produced by the Force of Air

Vibrato produced by the

the 18th

century.

force of

air begins

to develop in

Quantz mentions in his book a type of vibrato

7
similar

Quantz defines

vibrato.

flattement

Hotteterre's

to

a swelling and diminishing of volume on a single note

vibrato as

In addition,

with a finger flattement on the nearest open hole.

Quantz calls

flutist's attention

to the

vibrato will also lower the pitch.

He

that this procedure of

flutist should

says the

compensate by adjusting the embouchure (Quantz, 1752, p. 165-1 66).

In

1761,

Delusse

noted

the organ

imitation of

breath

were

the

same

p.

as

the

is basically

used in

vibrato was a

organ
of

Then in 1701

tremolo.

vibrato

called

the Bebung

a finger vibrato style (Toff,

1985,

107).

Throughout the
continued to
N.

is

The numbers of beats for the breath

Tromolitz discusses another type

vibrato, which

which

means this

tremolo. This

measured type of expression.

vibrato

vibrato

W. James,

grow.

9th century

the interest

in flute vibrato

Toff quotes a British flutist and publisher,

from his book, A Word or Two on the Flute (1826).

Vibrations on the flute... when introduced

judiciously and sparing. . .have an exceeding
fine effect. The beat of a violin is justly
considered one of its chief beauties, and the
vibration of the flute, particularly in its
lower tone is very similar (Tolf, 1985, p. 107)

James, like Quantz, also warned the flutist to

be extremely

careful to maintain correct pitch when using vibrato.

Great caution should be taken that the

beginning of the note shall be neither
flatter nor sharper than the middle or ending
of it (James, 1826, p. 100).

Although

Toff

says,

"James advocated an intensity vibrato

but not a pitch vibrato," (Toff,

1985, p.

109) this

writer has

2
different

reached

about

conclusions

advocated an intensity vibrato as

However, James
vibrato.

type

of

color

or nuance.

does not state that he is not in favor of

Instead he seems to lead toward

James

meaning.

James'

pitch

used of tone

over the

or timbre vibrato.

Charles Nicholson,

a virtuoso flutist and a contemporary of

James, used vibrato as

and it was notated

Nicholson described the vibration as an

embellishment, with a gradual

The vibrato

or vibration

pulses as

the

following

is

sound

called it "vibration,"

He

an ornament.

change in

should begin

diminished

Nicholson's

slowly, then increase in

(Toff,

explanation

of pulsation.

the rate

The

1985,

p.

109).

how

to

produce the

on

vibration.

Breath-by a tremulous motion of the flute,

and by the shake.
If by the breath, subdue
the tone, and on each succeeding pulsation,
let the tone be less vigorous.
When the
vibration becomes too rapid to continue the
effect with the breath, a tremulous motion
must be given to the flute with the right
hand (trill on a key), the lips being
perfectly relaxed, and tone subdued to a mere
whisper (Nicholson, 1830, p. 71).
Nicholson felt vibration was most
(Toff,

effective

between

e1

and b2

1985, p. 109).

Beginning in

the mid

(or vibration) was being

reveals in

1700s to the mid 1800s, flute vibrato

compared with

voice vibrato.

Osborne

his thesis a portion of a letter written by Mozart on

June 12, 1778.

In this letter Mozart

uses the

qualities of the

human voice to define vibrato.

The human voice trembles by itself, but such,
and in a degree which is beautiful
that is

1
the nature of the solo voice which one
imitates, not only on wind instruments, but
also on the string instrument, yes, even on
the clavichord
but as soon as it passes the
limit, it is against nature; it sounds just
like an organ when someone pokes the bellows.

From Mozart's

letter we can conclude that he approved of the use

of vibrato, as long

that there

as it

were limitations

occurred in

moderation.

It appears

for the use of vibrato even at this

early state in its development.

Victor Coche also believed

similar to

produced by

played as

vibration

was very

In his writing, he uses

to represent

flute vibration.

using a forceful attack of air followed by a

less forced sound using less air.

would be

flute

that of the voice vibration.

the term le chevron notated

It was

that

The

.half note

with a chevron

a series of tied eight notes.

The following

is an example:

m^m
CM

C<x/>

< >

& e

<> <>

"*

Figure No.

by the force of air.

Quantz' description

of

Today this

vibrato would

type of

vibrato

S-P

p $

Coche 's vibrato would definitely

vibrato produced

fall into

the category of

This also very similar to

presented

earlier

this paper.

tend to be classified more in

the terms of crescendo and diminuendo.

order for

In

this to be

classified as a flute vibrato today (20th century), the pulsation

would need to have a much wider range and density.

A later reference to vibrato can be found

in a

method book

Richard Carte in the mid-nineteenth century.

written by

In this

vibration on the

method Carte differentiates between tremolo and

Carte defines tremolo as:

flute.

A grace that consists in the wavering of a

note.
It is produced on the flute either by
giving a tremendous impulse of the breath, or
by tremulously holding the instrument.
It is
used in passages of pathos, and is indicated
by the word tremolo, or is introduced at the
fancy of the performer (Carte, 1880, p. 23).
The

according

tremolo,

is produced

vibrato that

Carate, would then be classified as

to

by force

However, Carte also

of air.

the tremolo can be produced by a small, continuous

mentions that

The interpretation

movement of the flute in the flutist's hand.

of this

uncertain, although it does seem to imply the

aspect is

use of some type of force.

Carte defines flute vibration as a

the pulse

He states

fast on a soft note.

;

however,

performer
context

this

had
of

the

One possible notation of

could

determine

to

interpretation

shake.

based

The

on the

Carte, most performers

to

when deciding

on the interpretation

The shake was generally used in rapid passages, and the

vibration was mainly used for

23).

the

this vibration is

represent

also

According

music.

followed two basic concepts

of

should be slow on a loud note and

or beats

sign

finger vibrato.

type of

According

to

John

sustained
Clinton,

notes

(Carte

1880, p.

a colleague of Cartes' s,

II

vibrato on the four

lowest notes

very difficult to produce.

of the

flute

(c1

to d1#) was

Due to the inadequate number of lower

holes on the flute, the only way vibration could be

produced, on

these four notes, was by rolling the head joint in and out (Toff,
1985, p. 110).

Vibrato of the Late 19th Century and 20th Century

In the

late

19th

continuous pulsation
emerge.

Paul

The two

Taffanel,

century,

or a

type of

main proponent
and

oboist,

Paris,

in

vibrato

with a

shimmer in the tone began to

vibrato were flutist,

of this

Ferdanand

Gillet.

Taffanel and

Gaubert wrote a flute method book (1923,) in which they

made the

following statement concerning vibrato:

There should be no vibrato or any form of

quaver, an artifice used by inferior
instrumentalist and musicians. It is with
the tone that the player conveys the music
Vibrato distorts the
to the listener.
natural character of the instrument and
spoils the interpretation, fatiguing quickly
the sensitive ear.
It is a serious error and
shows unpardonable lack of taste to use these
vulgar methods to interpret the great
composers. The rules for their interpretation
are strict. It is only purity of line,
by charm, deep feeling and heart felt sincerity
that the greatest heights of style may be
reached. All true artists should work toward
this goal (Taffanel and Gaubert, 1923, p. 27).
The above statement presents a negative attitude or at least
a restrictive

since Taffanel

attitude concerning
and Gaubert

flute vibrato. Three

years

Taf fanel-Gaubert method

vibrato.

This seems unusual

were the instigator of a new type of

after

book, they

the

publication

of

the

appear to have changed their

IP-

view point on the usage of vibrato.

Toff reveals

the following

Taf fanel is from the "La Flute/' Encyclopedie de la

statement by

Musique et Dictionnaire du Conservatoire /

Louis Fleury, 1923.

The search for timbre, the utilization towards

this end of a light, almost imperceptible
vibrato. . .all this derives more from an intelligent empiricism (practical experience) than from
precise rules. It is very difficult, besides to
define with certainty, what to call a beautiful
sound.
It is easier to describe faults than to
avoid them (Taf fanel and Fleury, 1926, p. 15-23).
The remarks of one

more

give

insight

inconsistency.

Taffanel's

of

toward

students,

understanding

Hennebain says,

"When he

Adolphe Hennebain,
Taffanel's

spoke to

apparent

us of notes

with vibrato or expression, he told us with a mysterious air that

from within himself.

these notes, forte or piano, seemed to come

the impression that they came directly from the heart of

One had

(Taf fanel and Gaubert, 1923, vol. 2. p.

the soul"

Moyse,

Gaubert.
he says

another

well-known

In one of Moyse'

that Gaubert

spent many hours on

was

flutist,

articles in

186).

Marcel

a student of Philippe

Woodwind Magazine (1950)

never really talked about Vibrato, instead

musical expression

(Moyse, 1950,

No. 7, p.

4).

Marcel Moyse,
II ,

in his

article The

comments on the way vibrato

very poorly

in the

reasons why

vibrato was

also a

time when

pure, even tone.

wavering of

early 1900s.

was often

the tone

in performance.

seldom used

musicians

misused and performed

This appeared to be one of the

most professional
Most

Unsolvable Problem, Part

musicians were aiming for a

were

called vibrato.

This was

very

skeptical

of this

Marcel Moyse in 1950 made

13
the following statement concerning

worse than

Judgments

ruthless"

with

final

were

(Moyse, 1950, No. 5, p. 12).

critics labelling

"

vibrato

Flutists Georges Barrere

Tabutea were

to the United States.

vibrato

5,

p.

12).

Laurent,

along with

the first musicians to bring vibrato

By 1940, vibrato

America,

in

(literally misery hider,

Georges

and

of American orchestral woodwinds.

of

It was

Moyse also recalls music

cache-miser

and tone quality)" (Moyse, 195C, No.

oboist Marcel

appeal.

no

when faced with problems of intonation

hide behind

something to

It was

Young vibrato partisans were referred to as

cholera.

criminals.

"Vibrato?

vibrato.

became an

Shortly
arrived

Moyse

after

accepted part
the acceptance

United States

the

in

distraught from the excessive use of vibrato in France.

The

British

and

were

Viennese

Henry Welsh wrote in the British

contemplate the use of vibrato.

periodical Music and Letters in

probably the last to even

951

As for the woodwind, I fail to' see any

aesthetical or technical reason why they
should trespass on the noble and intimate
qualities which belong so inseparable and
essentially to the strings. A plea that
vibrato-playing enhances the quality of
tone cannot therefore be upheld. Wind
instruments should be played with a tone
that is as steady as a rock and as pure as
crystal (Toff, 1935, p. 112).

Barrere 's
vibrato.

vibrato

His vibrato is said

believed vibrato

was

very

the
to have

to be an expression,

also likened vibrato and

Barrere

became

much

tremolo to
against

the

United

States'

ben very

first true

rapid.

Barrere

like a "love message."

the human

over-use

voice.

He

However,

of vibrato.

He

\H
believed it was still possible to produce a beautiful, expressive
sound on

the flute

by using pure lines and tone (Toff, 1985, p.

112-113).

John Wummel (solo flutist of the New York

one of the last students of Barrere.

flutists to play with

slow down

a fast

in later years.

Kincaid

He was also one of the last

vibrato, although

his vibrato did

William Kincaid was the first flutist

to develop the slower vibrato.

more controlled.

Philharmonic) was

The vibrato was much smoother and

was also

the first flutist to expand

the intensity and vary the speed of the controlled vibrato (Toff,
1985, p. 113).

Chapter III

STYLISTIC PRACTICES OF FLUTE VIBRATO IN BAROQUE, CLASSICAL, AND

AVANT-GARDE MUSIC

The Use of Vibrato in the Music of J.S. Bach

The six flute sonatas and the solo partita by J. S. Bach are
a major part of the flute repertoire.

performed

now

are

that

"flauto traverso"

recorder and

keyed cross, or transverse

Pan

Bach used

eight-holed, oneboth the recorder

transverse flute extensively in his religious music such

as the Cantata

and in

a bee" meant

or "flute

is the wooden,

flute.

of Bach

were originally written for

flute

on

In Bach's notations, "flauto"

recorder.

and the

Many of the works

"Erschreke doch,"

(Tenor aria,

20

Cantata 113

cantatas, the Coffee Cantata and Phoebus and

his secular

orchestral works,

Among his

Brandenburg Concerto
and the

second

today's

performance

concertos,

No.

and

fourth

reorder

the

transverse flute.
produce a wooden

minor and the

in B

were written for the transverse flute

Brandenburgs
second

the

of

the Suite

usually

is

feature

and

fourth

replaed

by

recorder. In

Brandenburg
the

modern

Although the modern transverse flute does not

baroque

sound

like

the

recorder

"the total

effect really does not suffer" (Schweitzer 1923, Vol. 2, p. 408).

The first

three Bach flute sonatas, B minor, E Major, and A

Major, were written for

second

group

of

harpsichord and

sonatas,

Major,

transverse flute.

The

E minor, and E Major were

written for transverse flute and

were composed

figured

"These pieces

bass.

There are two integral lines of melody:

as duets.

the flute part and the left-hand part of the keyboard.

hand of

the keyboard

by the figured bass"

fills in the harmonies which are indicated

(Baron, 1950, p.

should copy

the flutist

The right

Baron suggests that

9).

original figured bass part and

out the

make the realization himself.

Due to the changes in musical style and

of

the

flute

Bach's

since

performances of Bach's works

intentions.

It

time,

will differ

necessary

is

it

is

in the construction

likely

that modern

significantly from his

then that the performer seek to

discern, the composer's intentions

and any

instructions that may

be available.

Baron

believes

expressive qualities

of the

For example:

instrument.

recorder
flute
oboe
trumpets

describes

gently, plaintive moods

jovial and confident, or playful moods
mournful sentiments
powerful and brilliant

recorder

the

quality and pureness of

simplicity

wrote parts for each instrument

voice and

according to the natural

Baron

Bach

that

purity

or

recorder, then
However, some

the

use

also

as

pitch which
pitch

of
of

is

vibrato

having

appealed to

a soulful tone

Bach.

If the

what Bach desired from the

was

probably nonexistent.

scholars believe that recorder players used swells

or a slight force of air, which could be interpreted

type of vibrato.

as an early

References to vibrato on the early wooden flute

were mentioned above in Chapter II.

r,

17
4

There are many different

opinions on

ideas and

the use of

vibrato in Bach's music on the modern transverse flute.

there is some common

Robert

flutists.

Willoughby,

Professor

Conservatory of Music, comments on

first movement

of the

among professional

this subject

ground on

B minor

Flute at Oberlin

of

use

the

However,

vibrato

of

Sonata by J.S. Bach.

in the

Willoughby

believes that the use of vibrato should be limited here.

Baroque music vibrato is to be used as
ornament, not as something you turn on
the beginning of the piece and turn of
Save vibrato for the important
the end.
notes and peaks of phrases. Use very little
vibrato, if any, on the resolution of dissonance,
even if it's a long note (Willoughby, 1985, p. 8).
In
an
at
at

Marcel Moyse addresses this

Problem Considerations
4).

response

In

vibrato, Moyse

flutist's

young

Drawing

violin student

the Conservatoire

again.

de Paris with the concert

The

than the

see and hear you!"

entered in

which a

During a session in

second

was cold
time,

first:

(Moyse,

him to

and instructed

the student played it with

intensive vibrato, and Capet commented that

even colder

experience, he

was playing an Aria by J.S. Bach, Capet commented

to the student that his playing

it

personal

from

artist and violinist, Lucien Capet.

try

questions concerning

attempts to show that there is no black and white

class at

recalls a

"The Unsolved

on Flute Vibrato" (Moyse, 1950, No. 7, p.

to

vibrato.

answer about

an article,

issue in

the second

time was

"You want me to hear Bach.

1950,

no.

7,

p.

4).

only

Capet then

discussion about the technical problems of vibrato.

At this point Moyse began to understand the difficulties entailed

IS
5

to apply

in "trying

bowed instruments"

flute technique the vibrato for the

to the

(Moyse, 1950, no. 7, p. 4).

Moyse also acknowledged

vibrato.

on

statements

influence

the

Taffanel

of

Paul Taffanel's

"that in search for

states

timbre one should use an almost imperceptible vibrato"

and

Gaubert,

1923,

"easier to describe faults

Gaubert,

1923,

Moyse proceeded

Moyse.

than

avoid

to

This

186).

p.

also commented that it was

He

186).

p.

(Taffanel and

them"

comment had a great effect on

of vibrato

the effect

to study

(Taffanel

Baroque and early Classical periods.

in the

He began by copying an Aria

from Bach plus the Andante from the second

and third

Sonatas of

Handel, which were practiced several times a day without vibrato.

surprise

To his

Instead

It was

unstable.

from

other

vibrato

continuous
that was

reminds us

became

quite

harsh

while

(such

s,

practice,

superior to

before

violin

as

Moyse

at first.

his intonation became

obtained positive

he

and

voice

vibrato)

and

obtained a vibrato and tone

finale

most of

degree that

were still

in Paris in the

the flutist

in his

time.

Moyse

1930s

Indeed,

who
some

flutist

whose

one can

on a

violin.

For this

a number of excellent instrumentalists

did
of

vibrato at all (Moyse, 1949, p.

only

and

results

that it is not possible to control the vibrato on the

reason, there

the

good

Howver, through diligent study of

this- effort.

flute to the same

vibration.

receive

not

did

sonority

his

results

he

not

know

how

to

control the

these musicians chose not to use

12).

vibrato

comparable to Moyse is Julien Baker.

and

In the

tone

writer's opinion,
can

be considered

n
The Use of Vibrato in the Classical Concertos
of W. A. Mozart

Concerto No.

concertos

two

wrote

Mozart

in

flute,

G Major (K.313) and Concerto No. 2 in D Major

These two concertos are a major

(K.314).

transverse

the

for

part of

the flutist's

repertoire today.

They are considered to have more similarities

than differences.

However, there are some major differences when

to interpreting the composer's intentions for these two

it comes

concertos.

through knowledge

It is

determine the correct use of vibrato.

Major concerto were completed

style that

of the

one can

Both the G Major and the D

The

in 1778.

two concertos were

written about the same time, some scholars and flutists interpret
the G Major concert in a Pre-Classical style.

number

interpret

the

Major

flutists,

such

D Major

symphony believed the D Major Concerto

strictly Classical

style.

Concerto.

Most

Kujala of the Chicago

Waif rid

as

an equal

in a Classical style.

concerto

There appears to be no dispute over the

professional

Although

should be

performed in a

For example, Kujala believes that the

trills in the D Major Concerto

should be

played on

the written

note and not approached from above as in the Baroque era.

The flute that was used around 1778 was very similar to that

Baroque period, except that

keys.

In 1774,

Kusder of

three new keys to the flute:

B flat

keys.

The bodies

were still basically made of

(Bate,

1969,

p.

104).

The

it

had

acquired

few additional

London and Tromlitz of Leipzig added

they were the F sharp, G sharp, and
of the

box

flutes by Kusder and Tromlitz

wood,

or

black

african wood

majority of the flutists were still

playing the wooden, eight-holed, one-keyed flutes

of the Baroque

period during the early Classical era (Rockstro, 1890, p. 227).

As mentioned

above, a

modern performers (Moyse,

number of

Kincaid, and Peck) differentiate between the two Mozart concertos

on

basis

the

of

These interpreters regard the first

style.

concerto as Pre-Classical.

Donald

1S85,

Peck,

principal

flutist

Chicago

of

discussed the use of vibrato in the Concerto No.

Peck commented

that in

pure and

simple, very

much like

Sonatas.

In addition, Peck commented

Mozart.

straightforward,
forward,

and

Likewise, it is the

in G Major by

in the J.S. Bach

the allegros

same

Symphony,

tone should sound

general, the

melodic

the

in Chicago in

master class

During a

that the

phrases are very

line

must

always be moving

with

the

vibrato:

light,

reserved, and moving with a little intensity toward the climax of

Pre-Classical

vibrato

presented

states, "Save the vibrato

phrases"

approach to

Peck agrees with the basic

the phrase.

(Montgomery,

for the
1984,

Endsley, principal flutist of

earlier

Willoughby,

by

4,

No.

p.

2,

who

and peaks of

important notes

Vol.

Baroque and

3).

Pamela

who studied with

Denver Symphony,

Moyse, constantly reminds her students to guard against the overuse of vibrato in the concert.
use

vibrato

on

the

moving

unnatural and unstable rhythm.

movement

of

the

concerto)

vibrato by outlining the

phrase with

She also cautions students not to

sixteenth

notes,

In the Adagio

lest they sound

non Troppo (second

Endsley would emphasize the use of

important notes,

in turn

building the

intensity to the climax, and then suddenly returning

to a simple, pure sound.

During the Classical era the construction of the

In 1827, D. Pottgeisser equalized

of modifications.

through lot

flute went

all of the holes, which had diameters of 7.9 mm.

He also applied

the principle of the ring pad to the keys, which prevents leakage
of air (Bate, 1969, p.

Around

110).

Since Nicholson had very-

increased the size of the finger holes.

large hands, enlarging the

present a

size

holes

finger

the

of

Charles Nicholson

1815,

did not

Enlarging the finger holes increased

problem for him.

the volume and tonal quality

Nicholson's

of

flute

(Rockstro,

18S0, p. 227).

major

The
Boehm.

revisions

the

of

models

After several different

Boehm's system

materials such

Today

as silver

for flute

(Boehm,

908, p. 2)

There were

in the

tried

it was

used as

era was just beginning to be

made

from metal

Boehm's flute of 1847 still

the world

design of the flute during

to have

been a slight

silver

be used

to outline

vibrato did
or

of timbre vibrato.

a type

starting to

important notes in a phrase, or

the flute was made of

is

Flute vibrato during the Classical

change in the use of vibrato.

in flute

flute

also appears

the Classical period, there

major changes

been

manufacturers throughout

many changes

vibrato was

the

and gold.

serves as a model

For example,

had

of constructing the flute of 1847 that became the

standard flute of today.

.1

were done by Theobuld

flute

to highlight the

melodic lines.

The

not occur until the body of

metal

materials.

The metal

materials are much more responsive to the vibrato vibrations then

the early

wooden flutes.

The

metal bodied

flutes allowed for

3.X-

greater projection

range of

the vibrato where the wooden flutes

range was extremely limited (Rockstro, 1890, p. 228).

At a master class in July

at Northwestern

that

University
secondary

the

would tell his students

at the same

through the

time to

themes

the

in

and direction

would often

Major Concerto
to them.

He

to use a little more vibrato sound and

and continuity

give life

consistent use

finger

than the

Illinois,

Chicago,

in

(usually in minor) needed more life

2)

Kujala, Piccoloist

flutist of the Chicago Symphony and Professor of Flute

and third

comment

1985, Walfrid

vibrato)

Although vibrato (other

of vibrato.

was

not

to the melody

readily

accepted

when the

concerto was

written, the use of vibrato is expected in a modern

performance.

The key concept of vibrato in

is moderation.

The

speed and

the Classical period

the depth of the vibrato must be

controlled and used with great care.

Solo Works Versus Orchestral Works

The Advantages and Limitations of Vibraato in Flute Soloist Works

Vibrato can be used more extensively in solo works. Actually

the soloist

not really

can use

have

to

Kincaid (1395-1967),

as much vibrato as he pleases since he does

blend

with

Professor of

of Music, established guidelines

should

follow

when

another

using

instrument.

William

Flute at the Curtis Institute

that he

vibrato.

believed every flutist

Kis

thoughts on vibrato

(Krell, 1973, p. 16), seem to be an outgrowth of Taffanel's ideas

on

vibrato.

He

also

points

intensity of a note in a scale;

out

how vibrato can affect the

this is very important

for both

^3
the solo

flutist and

the orchestral flutist.

The following are

his comments on vibrato, notated by John Krell.

Vibrato also has a bearing on relative

intensity considerations. The rate of the
vibrato pulsation can indicate, to a great
degree, the position of the note in the
A slower vibrato suggests the
scale.
relaxation of the low register while a
faster rate reinforces the excitement of the
In other words, the speed of vibrato
top.
should be graduated, as we graduate the
intensity, through the range of the
instrument.
In general, use the vibrato with
circumspection. Vibrate on the longer notes
and avoid it in running passages;
it adds a
liquid quality but destroys the line and
continuity in the process. Occasionally, a
fast quiver of vibrato on a dotted eighth
note in a rapid tempo will add to the
vitality of the rhythm. A touch of quick
vibrato can be used to gently underline the
skeletal notes in embellished figurations, or
a caressing pulsation can make an accent
In other words, its uses
subtle expressive.
are varied and infinite (Krell, 1973, p. 16).

The Advantages and Limitations of Vibrato for an

Orchestral Works
In ensemble

music

caraefully coordinated

it

is

necessary

the

that

with all the instruments in the ensemble.

The reason for this is that some woodwinds use less

and

others,

the

clarinet

orchestral use of flute

that the

woodwind choir

practically

uses

vibrato must

blends properly"

to

be

in

relationship

to

the

vibrato than

controlled so

(Toff, 1985, p.
1

"The

no vibrato.

be strictly

She suggests the following restrictions:

needs

vibrato be

110).

the speed of vibrato

tempo of the music;

in

allegros the vibrato should be faster, and in adagios the vibrato

<2H
should be slower; 2) the vibrato should also be slower in the low

register and faster in the high register (Toff, 1985, p. 110).

In view of these
on

guidelines for

would

vibrato

orchestral

vibrato, Kincaid's opinion

to have great relevance for

seem

flutists.
Ideally there should be consensus of vibrato
style in each selection of an orchestral or
ensemble; it takes only one instrument with a
machine-gun or heart-throb vibrato to destroy
the blend of an entire section and disconcert
the tuning (Kreu, 1973, p. 17).
In

Moyse

addition,

commented

orchestral performance

where each

was the best and would not

He said

orchestra.
styles

that

composition (Moyse,

1950

the other

performer is

styles

that

need

to

in

the orchestra

as to

an

orchestra,

no one

or wrong in his approach to vibrato.

cooperation, or
be

the

Communication also means

used.

Moreover,

totally right

Instead, there must be

on

As Moyse has revealed to us,

4).

should be

listening very carefully.

members of the

concentrate

not

could

he

1950, p.

of vibrato

about an

was so distracted by the different

there must be constant communication within

what type

article

musician believed his vibrato

blend with

that he

vibrato

of

his

in

discussed

rather a

combination of

in advance and not left to

chance.

The following examples of

use of

an effective vibrato.

First Symphony,
orchestra, which
However, since

the

first

calls for
it is

symphonic literature

require the

In the last movement of the Brahms

flute

must

cut

through

a slightly faster and

necessary that

the whole

wider vibrato.

the woodwinds

blend as an

"

A 5"
oboe

the

ensemble

basson

and

also need to adjust their

will

Figure No.

vibrato.

131

ferisrafas^te

3 3

5 5 ^a ^

'b

'.?
'

''

IIP

i!

tf

11

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I'M!*

:*

.,

.- 5
1

m
ll!&

;
:

^f

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llfl|f?5$lfelfe
H-i V-, S-q^ X ^. S -o
ift

'

:;

I:

<:>-

^^i^f v^cc5T^S-*.
T

IK."

IplSfS
' Sftoira

'

iii'nhi.
lite
Mil'?

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Hi

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feiQ

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.iiiW

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Id

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5^6
In Mendelssohn's Fingal's Cave Overture, it is necessary

down, and narrow the vibrato in the final cadence.

Figure No.

to slow

<A

H-

<

fD
<

r.

CD

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<

fD

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(D

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n
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Figure No.

H-

Q)

These are

just

few orchestral examples revealing the different

types of vibrato that are necessary in orchestral playing.

9.1
Vibrato, Pitch
The modern Boehm

silver-based material,

and Tone Color of the Modern Boehm Flute

flute

usually

is

produces basically

the pitch fluctuations are very small,

on either
1974, p.

the pitch

side of
10).

This is

of

silver or

an intensity vibrato,

cent maximum

about "five

center and

usually caused

made

usually less" (Howell,

manipulation of

from the

intmsity that causes the pitch to fluctuate during the rising of

the falling

the intensity to its peak, and

its valleys.

changes.
focus.

During

It has

this process

However, it

the timbre of the flute also

quality on

a different

intensity to

of the

the sharp

side of the

crossing between the sharp and flat

is the

produce a

side that enables the flutist to

marvelous shimmering

sound, which is characteristic of an especially fine flute sound.

In order

to hear the complete range of the flute tone color

one must listen to a highly skilled performer

instrument.

playing on

a fine

The flutist must be able to produce changing speeds

and intensities of vibrato

darker tone color.

in

combination

with

brighter or

The bright one is usually obtained by playing

stream downward

with the embouchure hole open, directing the air

to compensate for the sharpening of pitch that would result.

darkness is produced by rolling the

correct the

flattening of

its response to the

pitch.

two extreme

flute in

and blowing

The
up to

"The flute varies greatly in

approaches, with

all manner of

shades of gray between; the vibrato emphasizes these differences'"

(Howell, 1974, p. 11).

The instrument also plays a major part of

the tone color. Some flutes will respond best with a bright color

while others with a dark color.

No

two flats

respond the same.

30
No two flutists will hone the same embouchure formation, nor have
the same taste in tone color.

Types of Avant-Garde Vibrato

It is possible to

but in

tune.

spread vibrato

produce a

This type of vibrato will accent the stuffy timbre

that is produced.

timbre

This

inforcement within

comes

exceptions;

some

from

straight tone.

extreme high register of the flute,

from a3

lack

of re-

of the flute

However, there

seem

exceptions

flute

the

full intensity

The

the tube.

timbre cannot be obtained with a

are

(out of focus)

to

occur in the

and above.

On the

piccolo, the exceptions begin around d3..

avant-garde

Some

flutist's ability

composers

varying

for

production.

vibrato

The

tend
the

to take advantage of the

speed

Four

Etudes

for

intensity of

composers are after a desired effect

through the use or non-use of flute vibrato.

wrote

and/or

Roger Reynolds, who

quartet and Mosaic for flute and

flute

piano, uses the terms NV (non vibrato), V (normal vibrato) and SV

vibrato).

(stressed

Harby

Gaber, who wrote Chimyaku for solo

flute or alto flute, is more specific in his vibrato instructions

by

using

sliding

scale

eventually changes his strict

scale from

the

relationship
emphasis is

zero

to ten.

interpretation

into

However, Gaber

an intensity

non-vibrato to maximal intensity, which should not be

confused with the dynamics.

because

from

Gaber

vibrato

speed

to

perceived

its

placed on

on

changed

flute

his

vibrato scale

has a very unpredictable

intensity.

great

deal of

the individual instrument and the flutist

-31

The

concerning the vibrato speed.

control over

the placement

of the vibrato.

However,

easily than others.

flutist has

almost complete

of the pitch, and the depth or width

some

flute's

change

do

pitch more

Therefore,

"the use of overly specific instructions can

unless
unpredictable
results
not
cause
recommended, unless one has a specific player
in mind and can experiment with him and unless
the need for controls is real and apparent"
(Howell, 1974, p. 12).

to

be

3^Chapter IV

A SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO VIBRATO

QARfNIR'i I8

- DR.

Dr. Gartner began his experiments focusing

conflicting theories

four main

his attention on

of vibrato production.

They are

as follows:
1

2)
3)
4)

Vibrato is
Vibrato is
Vibrato is
diaphragm
Vibrato is

The following

reached

by

produced primarily in the throat

produced exclusively in the diaphragm
produced in both the throat and the
produced mainly in the abdominal muscles.
short summarization

is a

Gartner

as

of the conclusions

result of his experiments concerning

vibrato production.

Vibrato is

produced

interaction

the

by

The contractions and relaxations of the muscles

muscle systems.

in the diaphragm (in the abdominal

produce a vibrato

area) will

The diaphragm contractions are located in the

at a slower speed.

abdomen below the ribs and beneath the sternum.

is

being

produced,

larynx) open and close

contractions and
vibrato

speed

the

vocal

sympathetically

the

increases,

the

abdominal

exclusively

over

as the

speed

same

relaxations of the abdominal muscles.

vibrato speeds (commonly known a the

used

the vibrato

As

cords (which are located in the

muscles

involved while the larynx becomes more involved.

is

two separate

of

When the

become

less

During the fast

throat vibrato)

the abdominal muscles.

the larynx

However, the

diaphragm abdominal muscles do maintain a constant support during

the larynx or throat vibrato.

33
Anatomy and Background Information
Wind players

generally hold

that it is necessary to master

the fundamental techniques of breathing and

produce

successful

vibrato.

support in

Gartner supports the previous

statement and goes into great detail defining both

support techniques.

and the

order to

the breathing

The following is a brief summary of

Gartner's breathing and support techniques.

The two large muscle systems of the abdomen to
a large extent serve the function of breathing:
I. A. The diaphragm (Figure 5) and
B. The Anterior and lateral abdominal muscu-

lature (Figure 6-8), including the following

muscles: rectus abdominous, external oblique
muscles, internal oblique muscles, and the
transverse abdominal muscles.
II. The major thoracic muscles also are involved
in breathing (Figures 6 &"7): external intercostal muscles, the subcostal muscles, the
transverse thoracic muscles, and the serratus
In
posterior, superior, and inferior muscles.
addition, the external oblique muscles of the
abdomen originate to a large extent from the
outer surface of the chest namely from the
fifth through the twelfth ribs (Gartner, p. 63).

The diaphragm is considered

breathing.

regard to

pressure

Due
on

diaphragm).

the

to

the

area.

As the

muscle in

out

and

move

lower

in the

lower position of the diaphragm, it exerts

abdominal

This causes

and outward creating a

important

When one inhales, the diaphragm contracts,

which causes the muscle to flatten

body.

most

the

organs

(located

the abdominal

just

below

the

organs to move downward

balloon-like appearance

in the abdominal

diaphragm drops even lower, the air rushes in and

fills the space within the lungs,

causing them

to expand.

The

expansion of the lungs causes the rib cage to expand upward, and

3H
while

diaphragm

the

referred to as the

contracts,

inhaling

abdominal muscles

group of

supporting group of muscles

also

muscles

known as

contracts.

Another

exhaling muscles

are in a

state of relaxation during inhalation.

Foramen venae cavae

Pan sternalis diaphragmatic

Pars C'Kialis
diapbraginatis

Hiatus oesophageus

Arcus 1'imbocostalis

mediahs
Crus laterale
liaphra<matis

l-.il

y 1

Arcus

liin:r>o*-ostalis

lateralis

I?*

Cms mediale _
diaphragmatis
-

M. quadratus lumborum

M- obliquus interims
abdominis
M.obliquus externus
abdominis

M. psoas major
M. psoas minor

Figure 21 (from Spjltoholz)

Corpus

The diaphragm as seen from

The single bundles >f muscle
downward.

abdominal cavity.
can clearly be seen as they contract, the bundles shorten and the diaphragm moves

Figure No.

(he

fibers

%'i-rlcbrae

lumhalis V.

(Gartner, p. 65)

3$

m. ttfrnadeidomaiioideus. onto stmalts

. pcctoratis motor,
platyxma

pert sternocostal/

'

dctioideut

{aw lit cU\ipectoralis

r.

cephaltca

m. deltotdeut

m. obliquus rxteraus abdominis

m. ob/iquus externus abdominis *

spina

librae tnt,r t
,<?*

.//
uponsurofis m. ohltaui
tibttomtnii t-xfrrm

ant. sup.

iltitca

rtir t tU'i

&y

cut mediate

-^ft.

utpertictaiit

unu/i itiKtuau/is

i.-**

m. crematter

litanu-ntum

relfe.

i'tamentum susprnsorium prms

lt*tfim-ninm fumJiftsfmc penis

"

- Carpus prntg

Figure 22 (from Sobotta-Becher)

The

superficial layer of the chest

Figure No.

and abdominal muscles

(Gartner, p. 65)

2<o

m, pectoratis

motor

.m. serrotui

anterior

,,

lamina anterior
vaginae m.
recti abdomtni*

lamina anterior
r vaginae m. recti

abdom.

mm.

intercostalcs interni

cortilago costalis

in. obliautis
internum abdominis

spina

una

if

anterior
superior

m. obliauus extcmus^'
abdominis

ligitmentum inguinale

funiculus
spernuttii us

m.

remaster

Figure 23 (from Sobotta-Becher)

The middle

layer of the chest and abdominal musculature.

On

side of the picture (right side of the body) the internal oblique muscle has been exposed and the external

the

left

oblique muscle folded back. On the right side of the picture (left side of the boy) the rectus abdominis muscle has boon
exposed by removing the superficial fascial layer (fibrous covering) oi the muscle.

Figure No*

(Gartner, p. 66

21
mm.
,

intereouules exlerru

iniereos/a/es inter
\-^

_\mnn

*** abdominis
>

m, pectora/is motor

tinea

arcuuta

vagina

m. recti*'\
abdominis \
sinistri

funieuiux '"
tnertthitieut

muieu/ut rectus abdominis

Figure 24 (from Sobotta-Becher)

The deep

layer of the abdominal muscles; the transversa

abdominis

Figure No.

(Gartner

p.

67

3t
Support

The proper use of support is a fundamental

good tone, whether with or without vibrato.
term "support" with the

activity of

prerequisite for

Gartner compares the

"bearing down,"

which, for

instance, occurs during a bowel movement or childbirth.

two natural activities, the first step is a
by the

diaphragm

and

downward toward

In the second step, the muscles of the

contract,

the abdomen.

contracting and

muscles are

deep breath followed

the glottis or (throat) which actually brings

closing of

the vocal cords together.

chest

In these

developing

a pressure directed

the same

time, the abdominal

At

develop an

opposing pressure.

The

end result is an increase of air pressure in the chest cavity and

abdominal cavity,
The

of air.

process and

balances the other in total intake

each which

only

difference

in

the

natural

"bearing down"

the "support" process for a singer or wind player is

the opening of the glottis.

or wind

A singer

player must keep

the glottis open, for that is what releases the air from the lung

and allows it to pass through the mouth.

Gartner

summarizes the

definition of support in the following words:

The support is a type of light "bearing down"
activity with an open glottis and air stream
directed upwards, which regulates among other
things - breath control, breath economy, breath
guidance, and breath pressure (Gartner, p. 73).
During

the

process

of

"support"

that a singer or wind player

uses, a certain tension is created in the area directly below the

ribs.

This tension is known as isometric tension, which is when

a group of

muscles

are

flexed

in

opposition

of muscles or in opposition to a solid surface.

to

another set

When the inhaling

Ho

Sternum

B) "Diaphragmatic" Breathing
Inspiration (Breathing in)

A) Expiration (Breathing out)

ribs lowered; diaphragm relaxed and standing
high position; abdominal wall pulled in

Sternum and
a

in

Sternum and

ribs

Figure No.

nearly the same position; diaphragm

in

flattened out (cf. 25a)

abdominal wall protruding

11

Experimental Techniques

Gartner

Dr.

chose

technique

the

his

suited

scientifically

for

actions

technique

the

synchronous

measures

the

minute

chemical muscular contractions.

voltage which

exact

vibrato"

with

electromyography to

Electromyography

research.

complete most of

of

seemed best

investigation of muscles

(Gartner,

voltages

p.

84).

This

generated by electro-

Every active muscle sends

out a

indicates the contraction occurring in the muscle,

even if the contraction is too small to be seen by the human eye.

The voltage of these electrical currents (even the lowest Page
voltage)

is

first

trapped

and measured by special electrodes.

Then the electrodes are amplified and recorded by

electronic devices.

11

the appreciate

H\

Twelve flutists
Ten men

technique.

Nicolet

Aurele

were used

women European

and two

and

Kurt

in Dr. Gartner's electromyograph

were

Redel)

used as subjects in the

performed the

Each of the flutists

experiments.

flutists (including

following five

exercises:

Diaphragm thrusts
A straight tone
thrust increasing in speed until they
3) Diaphragm
finally become a vibrato
4) Vibrato with varying speeds (changes in the air
speed)
vibrato, then a normal vibrato with a
5) Billy-goat
transition to a billy-goat vibrato.
1

exercises

five

These

were

performed

while

playing

the

following notes on the flute:

Low register "A" (first octave* on flute) (a1

Middle register "A" (second octave on flute) (a2)
High register "G" (third octave on flute) (g3)
three specific

also played

Each flutist

orchestral passages to

compare the use of vibrato in musical selections with the vibrato

used in the isolated note exercises.

began

only

after

flutists

the

experimental equipment.

The recordings and tracings

comfortable

were

Brahms' S/
First Symphony (fourth movement
andaante)
2) Bizet, Carmen - Entr'acte
3) Debussy Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun
the use of the

orchestral

tensions which

had occurred

in three

the

The orchestral exercises chosen were:

1)

In fact,

with

of the

exercises,
in the

seemed

to

pin

minimize some

previous single note tests.

flutists, the

laryngeal activity was

documented at a very high rate of accuracy.

Dr. Gartner

grouped the

flutists into

four classes on the

basis of the number of vibrato oscillations per second.

He began

vx
with the

lowest frequency

and ended with the highest frequency.

The following table reveals the groups into which Gartner divided
the flutists and what percent of the total group they represent.

Table c (ES

experimental subject)

Croup

=5

ES2
ES

Group

17"o of

ES4

[I

ES

10

ES

12

=6

ES6

= 5-6

ES

ES

ES

11

33"/o of total subjects

Group IV

ES

total subjects

Group

III

ES

ES

= 6-7
17"'..

of total subjects

33"-> of total subjects

Figure No. 12

(Gartner p. 92)

produced in certain muscle groups were recorded and

The voltages

studied (while the flutist played thhe

varying degree

flute)

of muscular contractions.

that Dr. Gartner

particularly

was

determine the

to

The four muscle groups

interested

examining by

in

electromyography were:
1 .

2.
3.
4.

The
The
The
The

Abdomen
Chest Area (Thorax)
Diaphragm
Larynx

The abdomen

muscles were

needle electrodes.

measurement

of

This

the

experiments,

two

experimental

the needle

through the use of

During the
subjects

to

electrodes.

the

an accurate

be

to

abdominous muscles.

painful.

circulatory dysregulation due

nerve by

proved

procedure

rectus

this procedure was also

first studied

Unfortunately,

first preliminary

fainted

irritation

The injurious

from a reflex
of

the vagus

effects of the

m,
needle electrodes gave preference to the

skin electrodes

use of

in the final experiment that was tabulated.

The skin electrodes were in the chest and abdominal regions.

They consist of flat metal plates applied to

The

adhesive substance.

the skin

electrical connections were then fixed

directly to the metal portion of the electrodes.

stimulant medication

within an

known as

In some cases a

Novadrol was given to the flutist

to prevent any irritation of the vagus nerve.

To

study

constructed with
rubber balloon
electrode.

activity

the

of

an electrode

used

was

The

probe

to

was

diaphragm,

the

attached to
insulate

passed

esophagus (the area of the throat

probe

the interior end.

connections

the

through

was
A

of the

the mouth and the

swallowing) and then

used for

placed directly against the diaphragm.

4

13

1) inflatable

10

balloon

2,3) electrodes
4)

ground electrode

6)

small hand-operated

pump

with valve

for inflating the

balloon

7,5) electrode cables with connecting plug

9,10) cables

and tubes running inside lumen of channel

(5)

Figure No. 13
Skin

electrodes

abdominal areas.
and upper

were
The

also

placed

ground cables

on

the larynx, thorax, and

were attached

to the wrist

abdomen while a microphone recorded the musical sounds

the flutist produced.

Through the use of a myograph it was possible for Gartner to

Gartner was able to conclude

monitor the activity of the larynx.

the cricothyoid

that the activity of

muscle during

the vibrato

occurred simultaneously with that of the laryngeal muscles.

Through the

verify the previously stated muscle

movement

of

the

films, Gartner was able to

X-ray sound

use of

vocal

cords

clearly seen

activity.

synchronous with the vibrato was

noted in all vibrato types in these films.

In other words, there

is movement in the vocal cords in all types of vibrato,

the diaphragm vibrato.

tracings which

In

addition,

simultaneously showed

Gartner

including
made graph

also

the muscle activity of the

four areas (larynx, thorax, diaphragm, abdomen) and the

sound

jof

the player's vibrato.

Graph Tracing of
Muscle Groups
Involved

._0_

._

in

Time Sequence

Laryngeal Tracing

(1

second

intervals)

Vibrato Production
i

Thorax (chest) Tracing

-&->

*** H lf '

&

Diaphragm Tracing

Abdominal Muscle Tracing

Sound Track

/sc-rx*

p.

^y-frj

Figure No. 14

Gartner now

faced the

question:

vibrato, support, and the use of

of the

answer, he

Is there a connecting between

embouchure muscles?

In search

used skin electrodes on the face to determine

the movement of the muscles around the embouchure.

v^
Plato Electrodes Placed on the Embouchure Muscles

0^\mS

p.1%}

Figure No. 15

Dr. Gartner's results revealed that there

between vibrato,
He

concluded

was no connection

support, and the use of the embouchure muscles.

this

study

by

producing

X-ray

sound

document the movement of the diaphragm and the larynx.

films to

44
Chapter V

VIBRATO PRODUCTION AND PEDAGOGY

There

are

basic

two

diaphragm vibrato

vibrato over

flute student.

It is best

diaphragm vibrato
in

this

chapter

the throat vibrato for the beginning

flute student

for the

before attempting

majority

Most teachers emphasize

vibrato.

and throat

the diaphragm

of vibrato used on the flute,

types

throat vibrato.

material

the

of

to master the

and

Therefore,

practice

techniques will be focused on diaphragm vibrato.

Diaphragm Vibrato

Diaphragm vibrato is produced by a set of muscles (which for

simplicity's sake will be
one's breathing.

called

the

diaphragm)

muscles are the same muscles that allow

These

use to blow a steady stream of air in the

in fact

a series

of pulsations

stream (Weisberg, 1975, p.

actually

diaphragm

misnamed,
and

The term

imposed upon a steady

diaphragm vibrato is

vibrato

the

abdominal

production of vibrato,

that are

59).

because

the

that controls

wall

involves

muscles.

The

both
series

the
of

pulsations in the diaphragm vibrato are actually produced "by the

isometric action of the

abdominal muscles

against

As

pitch and
'rapid,

each

other.

dynamic level.
unarticulated

and diaphragm pushing

the pressure increases it raises the

Diaphragm

accents'"

vibrato has
(Toff,

1985,

the effect of
p.

103).

One

exaggerated example of the vibrato is the blowing out of a match.

In order

to blow

out a

match, a

large and sudden burst of air

HI
must be produced.

This burst

increases to

of air

its maximum

very quickly and then decreases just as quickly as it began.

following Figure

taken from

is

and decrease

the increase

figure shows

Weisberg, 1975,

p.

59.

The

This

in the air from blowing

out the match.

Figure No. 16
The previous

comments

generally believed

taken

Weisberg

and

Toff are

professional flutists to be standard

by many

diaphragm vibrato theories.

diaphragm vibrato

from

However, the

were taken

following comments on

from a thesis written by Osborne*

who seems to have a new approach to diaphragm vibrato.

The so-called diaphragm vibrato is not

actually a diaphragmatically produced sound.
It is a pulsation produced by the rib, or
intercostal muscles. This is a statement
which conflicts with the opinions of many
teachers, performers, and writers (Osborne,
1962, p. 125).

Osborne came to these conclusions with the aid of a physician and

other flute

students after conducting experimental studies using

a fluoroscope.

examine

the

small organs.

onto a

The

fluoroscope is

internal

structures,

a machine

rays are directed.

the objects or parts

used to

such as muscles, tissue, and

The shadows of the internal

fluoroscope screen

which is

by objects

structures are

cast

or parts through which X-

The shadows will vary with the

ointensity of

(Osborne, 1962, p. 125).

The fluoroscope is a machine for examining

internal structures by viewing the shadows
cast on a fluoroscope screen by objects or
parts through which X-rays are directed. The

W2
shadows vary with the intensity of the
objects or parts (Osborne, 1962, p. 125).

From the fluoroscope screen it was obvious that the diaphragm did
believed it had

not cause the vibrating sound that most flutists

The intercostal

produced.

or rib

muscles were responsible for

the production of the vibrato pulsations.

pulsate;

actually

moved

simply

it

diaphragm did not

The

upward in a slow, steady

fashion.

Osborne's

theory

scientific study
studies

are

fluoroscope.

about

very

is

Gartner presented

by Dr.

based

vibrato

medical

on

similar

in Chapter IV.

experiments,

conducted

to the

Both
with a

Since Osborne's and Gartner's theories are the most

recent and conclusive in the development

writer believes

that teachers

of flute

vibrato, this

should give more consideration to

their theories.

Elements of Production
Control of Speed

One of the basic

techniques of

Weisberg refers

speed.

59).

of

"vibrato

the

amplitude,

However, it

pulse

does

59).

volume (Weisberg,

is important

to realize

not come from zero, nor does it

return to zero, because zero represents

p.

or

He states that it is possible to control the rate

of change in the vibrato.

that

controlling its

to the speed of vibrato as its "slope,"

meaning the rate of change

1975, p.

vibrato is

silence" (Weisberg, 1975

Vibrato is the pulsation of air placed on a pre-existing

column of air.
pulsation.

Figure

from

Weisberg

represents

a single

L|1

The straight line represents the note at a

steady mp level, and upward curving line
represents an increase in volume, followed by
a similar decrease in volume.
Control of Amplitude
The

second

component

vibrato is control of the

of

the difference between

Weisberg defines amplitude as

amplitude.
the minimum
curve.

major

and maximum

Weisberg

(Weisberg,

1975, p.

dynamic level in

illustration

continuously varying

this

of

follows:

curve

CO)

Figure No. 17

Weisberg cautions

to carefully watch the pitch when-

the flutist

working on control of the amplitude.

air without

also adjusting

the embouchure,

pitch to be distorted.

However,

necessary because

one of

it is

If the flutist

this will cause the

variation

some

the major

not being

adjusted for

meant to be fairly rapid and even, but

pitch is

of

elements of vibrato.

The pulsations of the vibrato are sudden bursts

embouchure is

changes the

of air,

each pulsation.
not metered.

and the

They are

The pulses

should be quick enough so that they do not sound like a crescendo

or a diminuendo.

The speed and amplitude

makes it

possible for

the flutist to control his or her vibrato, instead of the vibrato

controlling

the

flutist.

Once

the

flutist

has

working

knowledge of these two concepts of vibrato, the next stage is the

5~0
method of teaching diaphragm vibrato.

Teaching Diaphragm Vibrato

Since many teachers such as Osborne
vibrato,

diaphragm

examine

shall

we

use only

the so-called

separately

how to teach

diaphragm vibrato and throat vibrato.

There are several different

However, two methods seem to stand out the most.

vibrato.
are

teaching diaphragm

methods for

methods

Gartner

by

and

Weisberg

Osborne.

They
some

has

interesting general information on wind teaching, but the Gartner

and Osborne

methods are

more detailed

on the

subject of flute

vibrato.

Gartner states that there are three basic approaches to

They

teaching vibrato.

are:

intellectual approach and,

that

believes

the

third

A rote physical approach, 2) an

a combination of the

3)

method

will

two.

Gartner

have a better chance of

intellectual understanding

success if the, student has an

physiological processes.

1)

of the

He also suggests that a student master

proper breathing and support skills before

beginning any vibrato

exercises
Breathing and Support and Techniques
A

flutist

must

technique, as well as

have

good concept of breath and breath

the ability

to perform

these techniques,

before attempting to produce a vibrato of any kind.

The better the breath technique the more
control can be brought to bear on the vibrato
and the more effective its use.
In fact,
vibrato demands good breath support and
control, especially in the diaphragm region.
An inadequate breath support will result in

an uneven vibrato with faulty intonation (Maxym,

1952, p. 20).
Maxym believes that breathing for a wind player is acquired

They are:

in three stages.

the reserve

breath, and

these

ultimate goal of

breathing technique
opinion that

each

other

suggests

he

phase

(Maxym, 1952,

p.

who

for flutists

Accordion"

flutists

for

The Hiss

backs, 4)

candle

play

5-3).

exercises

exercise

Toff

much more

are

'The Thinker"

1)

Balloon"
3)

or "The

Kincaid's pull-

playing,

stimulate flute

as one

5)

Kincaid's

shaping, and finally,

for developing tone quality

6)

long

(Toff, 1985,

34-85).

Although Toff's

exercises appear

writer in teaching breath

the

"The

play standing,

who

together

It is this writer ;s

by

2)

embouchure

-for

tones between C and A

p.

to

seated,

bring about the

working

practical in teaching a student breath support:

-

Maxym suggests

will

that

phases

three

the chest

breathing individually.

of

exercises

following

the

breath,

breath or residual air.

exercises in developing
Then

diaphragm

the

basic

same

Maxym

flutist.

support, both

principles
s

to be more useful to this

Toff and

Maxym present

teaching breath support for the

in

exercises are of a more

explanatory nature for

the flute teacher or advanced flute students.

The first objective in teaching diaphragm vibrato is to have

the student physically experience the function of the intercostal

While

muscles.

it

is

not

possible

intercostal muscles. However, it is

student to
muscle.

to

much

actually

easier

to

feel

the

instruct a

try and manipulate the rib muscles than the diaphragm

A student is able to see

and feel

the entire

rib cage

rx
Osborne believes

expand.

that his method of teaching diaphragm

vibrato is logical and that the desire results

quickly

more

method

this

by

theory (Osborne, 1962,

are acquired much

by using the old diaphragm

than

125).

p.

Gartner begins by having the

student

perform

series of

diaphragm thrusts and exaggerate the dynamics, through the use of

diminuendos,

crescendos,

rapid

abrupt

and

sforzandos.

The

following examples are the type of exercises Gartner recommends

Co-'*

(b)

< >

-&
< >

-e

<>

P^i

p S^

p $

Figure No. 13

Daring this exercise the vocal cords should remain relaxed, which

open, hollow,

phrase no pressure in the throat often aid

or the

the student in acquiring

remains

relaxed

accomplished.

notes;

rather, the

notes

that

so

throat.

the throat

true diaphragm vibrato may be

must also

be taken

with vibrato

doesnot occur between the

silence

vibrato should

Once

be continuous

from note to

The next step is to increase the speed of the pulse. This

can be accomplished by

between

then

Extreme caution

the

note.

relaxed

open

or

between

woids relaxed,

The

remain open.

throat to

will allow for the

40

setting the
and

(variations of the original

metronome at
90.

various speeds

The foliov/ing exercises,

exercises (a)

and (b)

will aid the

S"-?

student in making the transition from the slower pulsation to the

The transition should be achieved smoothly and

faster pulsation.
the metronome

should be

set at

(Gartner, 1981, p. 151-

60

152).

a)

"i
c
'

a-

s9

>

n n n n

a).

7 7

ot

/mi /rm

7T7-77

m in
y^r y

rm rm rm m\

J
St

7 *

7 >

7 7

mn

~*

jxj jji

> r

> r _y

Repeat with variations

m nm

>n
n
? 7

b)

'

rra

>

-)

r * 7 r

rn

rr n

p.

n rm

mn n rm
Figure No. 19

Osborne's method of teaching diaphragm vibrato is similar in

several

ways

Gartner's

to

notable differences.

method.

Osborne,

However, there are a few

like Gartner,

believes that the

first step is to have the student practice moving the rib muscles

back and forth.

However, Osborne

insists

on

great

exaggerated practice without the use of the flute.

to emphasize the mastery of

Gartner.

each

concept

in

more

Osborne seems
detail than

For example, after commenting on moving the rib muscles

back and forth, Osborne states that "this motion must be

a regular

deal of

rhythm.

The student

must be

done in

quickly brought to the

S"*f

(Osborne, 1962, p. 126).

vibrato"

agrees that regular movement of the rib muscles

This writer

rhythmic

approach

students

who

between the

the overemphasis

she questions

important, however,

with

the

13 and 17.

ages of

young

student

feels

student.

instructions

first

the

receive

beginning

produce

vibrato

student and should

be

A majority of
in

a new

a young

vibrato are

Often,

student.

concept is too difficult, the

Learning

all together.

student will avoid learning the concept

to

on a strict

A strict rhythmic approach to a

totally new concept tends to overwhelm

if

and learning the

of teaching

realization that this is the basis

often very disillusioning to a young

is

approached

flexibility by

the teacher.

that Osborne's

or

Gartner's

with

caution

and

with more

This writer does not mean to imply

concepts

are

not

important, but

modification of the procedure may be necessary for some students.

No two students learn vibrato in exactly the
the

amount of

same

strict rhythm.

the abdomen
air.

by executing

Osborne believes

or in

Osborne, like Gartner, comments that

time.

the rib motion is also connected with the

out in

same manner,

abdomen moving

in and

The student accomplishes the movement of

rhythmic inhalation
that only

and exhalation of

through this type of strictly

controlled abdomen movement is it possible to create a controlled

vibrato sound.

Osborne's next

step is

to scale

down both the exaggerated

movement of the abdomen and the pulsation of the air.

has

been

accomplished,

the

inhalation

produced will be keen and smooth.

"Now and

and

After this

exhalation of air

only now

should the

student put the flute to his lips and start the vibrato by saying

with his breath, and voice,

follows

Osborne

this

up

ha,

ha"

step

by

metronome at sixty beats per minute

Over

period

time

of

'jdi i-ilci

1962,

p.

127).

having

the student set the

with on

pulsation per beat.

pulsations

the

This step

vibrations per beat.

(Osborne,

is almost

are

increased to six

identical to

that cf

When the

student can

control his vibrato, both Osborne and

Gartner have the student practice going from note to note without
tone or

stopping the

exercises for the student to

step

further

melodies.
sonatas of

and

Gartner writes out a set of

the vibrato.

suggest

practice,
the

student

Osborne recommends the slow

J.S. Bach

v/hile

and G.F. Handel.

work

Osborne
on

goes one

\rery

movements from

simple

the flute

For the younger student,

Osborne suggests practicing popular tunes that the student may be

able

to

concept of
scales.

play

by

ear.

diaphragm
Scales have

and

Many

throat

vibrato

through

the

use of

often been thought of as the foundation of

all concepts of playing the flute,

vibrato.

flute teachers try to teach the

such as

technique, tone, and

The following statements by Osborne express his opinion

of the teaching of vibrato through the use of scales.

The use of scales in the development of the

vibrato leaves much to be desired. It is
true that scale practice is an aid in
securing a smooth vibrato through the stepby-step production of tones. In addition to
this experience the student needs practice in
developing the smooth vibrato while playing
Experience of this sort may
large interval.
be secured by working of the tone book of
M. Moyse, Of the Sonorousness (Osborne,
1962, p.

128).

Since the Moyse method

the

student,

reserved
student.

for

recommends

writer

this
the

places fewer

older

flute

technical demands upon

that the scale method be

student,

such

the college

as

Some students may possible be ready for this method by

their junior of senior years in high school.

Weisberg presents a condensed summary of

the

practicing

vibrato

advanced level of the

at

the

student.

beginning,
The breakdown

exercises for

intermediate,

and

of the exercises

for the three different levels could be used as a guideline for a

young teacher lacking experience in teaching vibrato.

Beginning Vibrato
- 60
Begin at a pulse speed of
Gradually increase over a
(Figure 59).
period of six months to a year to a pulse
speed of from four to seven per second,
depending on the instrument and the musical
Seven is extreme and does not apply
passage.
Four is also extreme and
to the bassoon.
From
does not apply to the flute or oboe.
five to six per second is the normal pulse

range.

Intermediate Vibrato
Up to this point it has been necessary to
count pulses with each note.
However, when
the vibrato is well under control, but not
yet at the proper rate of speed, we must
begin to eliminate the counting process.
This is not as easy as it sounds. With our
first attempt, we find that evenness
disappears or the amplitude has become very
narrow.
Do not try to overcome this too
hurriedly;
this is a necessary phase to go
Try to play scales slowly and
through.
range the notes at random.
In this way we
can begin to separate the pulses from the
rhythm of the notes. Another technique to
master at this point is the ability to begin
notes with the vibrato coinciding with the
start of the note. Think of the note

J~"7

starting at the top of the first vibrato

pulse.

Advanced Vibrato
At this stage we should be able:
1
To start notes with and without vibrato.
2.
To change the speed of the pulses while
playing.
To use vibrato at extreme dynamics.
3.
4.
To change the amplitude while playing.
.

Throat Vibrato
The throat is executed with the
the

throat,

while

within

the

larynx

are

vocal

membranes which

open and

Gartner illustrate

increase in
a

surrounding the

vibrations which

the tongue against

throat becomes more restricted when the

the

the vibrato

pulsations of

back of

type

cords.

of

"The

The vocal cords

speed.

muscle
vocal

within
cords

the throat

are elastic

close in varying degrees producing the

constitute our
the larynx

voice" (Gartner,
and the

shown below.

Vocal
Cords

Figure No. 20

1981, p. 76).

vocal cords in Figure 19

r#
The flutist can permit more air

through the throat

to pass

by relaxing and opening the vocal cords.

Elements of Production

vibrato

throat

The

closing the vocal

produced

is

cords.

order

In

slightly opening and

by
to

maintain

desirable

the opening in the vocal cords must remain small.

vibrato sound,

When the opening and closing of the vocal cords becomes too rapid
large

and

undesirable

the

"billy-goat"

type

of

vibrato

is

A high level of tension is also produce in the "billy-

produced.

goat" vibrato

due to

the extremely

small closure of the throat

with each contraction (Gartner, 1981, p. 76).

The breath support must

vocal

the

cords

become

and continuous while

remain steady

progressively

more

throat vibrato is progressively increasing the

is

progressively

decreasing.

involved.

As the

diaphragm vibrato

Throat vibrato is exclusively used

at the faster vibrato speeds, however, a small amount of activity

does occur

vibrato

is

simultaneously in
so

minimal

the diaphragm area.

this

at

point

that

it

overpowered by the throat vibrato (Gartner, 1981,

The control

of speed

The diaphragm

p.

is

strongly

85).

and amplitude in regard to the throat

vibrato is approached in almost the same manner presented earlier

with

the

diaphragm

vibrato.

However,

the

mainly produced from the opening and closing of

instead of the diaphragm muscles.

pulsations are now

the vocal cords,

SI
Teaching Throat Vibrato
Most professional

flutists agree

teaching of the

that the

throat vibrato must be approached with extreme caution.

not

method

for

young

flutist.

early

an

naturally in a student of

If throat vibrato occurs

age,

it

avoid discussing it altogether.

teacher to

method is

before this

taught.

is

best

for the

The student needs to

personal and

level of

have acquired a certain

This is

musical maturity

The actual level of maturity is

different in ever student, therefore the teacher must assess each

student's needs and abilities on a continuous basis.
Most

professional

using the spoken "ah."

flutists

teach

throat

vibrato by

Gartner states the following in reference

to teaching throat vibrato:

A long spoken "ah" should be sustained and

then abruptly stopped by suddenly closing the
vocal cords. Gradually the length of the
sustained "ah" should be shortened and the
abruptness of the vocal cord closure should
be shortened and the abruptness of the vocal
cord closure should be practiced until the
"ahs" and the abrupt stops meld together in
an uninterrupted undulating sound (Gartner,
1981 p. 153).

Gartner's explanation of teaching throat vibrato is the most

complete and

emphasize

thorough approach

that

this

approach

available.
is

However, one should

not for young students. This

method of Gartner's may even need simplification for some college

freshman flute students.

L>0

Combination Vibrato

Controversy Over Combination Vibrato

The topic of combination vibrato causes a lot of controversy

only one

professionals believe

that many

the fact

due to

preferred type

of vibrato.

that there is

Weisberg is a good example

statements in

He makes the following

of this school of thought.

his book on vibrato.

Experience has proved to the author that the

diaphragm vibrato is far superior to any of
the other types.
Such a preference, however,
cannot be sustained with scientific proof, it
is a matter of personal preferences.
At this
time, this belief is very strongly held, and
to the author represent a "truth."
For that
reason, diaphragm vibrato will be the only
type to be discussed (Weisberg, 1975, p. 59).
Toff, has a similar opinion about vibrato. She questions the

actual feasibility of teaching

vibrato. However, Toff does

any

to the

tension and

that seem to Lake place during the instruction of

other problems

vibrato than

vibrato, due

the throat

possibility

of

lean more

tend to

vibrato.

to the diaphragm

She does not mention or imply

combination

vibrato.

Toff

strongly

criticizes throat vibrato:

A potentially dangerous technique because it
is a major cause of tension in the throat.
And tension is something to be avoided at all
cost because it usually results in a smaller
sound (Toff, 1985, p. 108).

Osborne also

appears to

is the only vibrato,

Toff,

and

Osborne

however, it is from

believe that the diaphragm vibrato

since he mentions no other type.

are

all

highly

Garner that

accredited

we receive

and highly scientifical approach to vibrato.

Weisberg,

professionals;

the most up-to-date

Connection of Throat and Diaphragm Vibrato

Gartner

states

that

is a combination vibrato.

there

between the

diaphragm and

the flutist to have

This

command.

will

throat vibrato.

diaphragm

the

enable

throat

vibrato

it

would

flutist

Without

flexibility in his/her vibrato.

not

It is necessary for
at his

have a range of

to

a smooth

possible

be

vibrato

throat

and

the

move smoothly

learns to

combination vibrato is when the flutist

The

switch to the

to create the fast

shimmering vibrato often required of flutists

This fast

today.

vibrato is helpful in projecting the flute tone through the large

orchestras of today, as well as for tonal intensity.

Control and

flexibility of the vibrato also can permit an immediate change in

the mood an color of the composition.

Exercise for the Combination Vibrato

The following exercises by Gartner will help the

develop

evenly

"an

modulated

vibrato

student should

begin by

setting the

then perform the exaggerate

thrust

to

each

increased until the

back to

exercises
Then move

208.

=104 and continue

was

performing two

metronome beat.

continue to advance the

The transition

from the

The

60 and

exercises with one

should

be

steadily

the metronome setting

the diaphragm thrusts at the same

speed as when the metronome

thrusts per

156-157).

p.

metronome on

diaphragm thrust
These

beat.

smooth transition

.and a

between the two vibrato types" (Gartner, 1981,

flutist to

speed of

set

on

=208

except

now-

The student should

the metronome

until

160.

diaphragm vibrato to the throat vibrato

2-

begins to take place at about

metronome beat).

The

thrusts per

thrusts should be

gradually

120,

appeals to

degree of the

amplitude and

decreased

as

accomplished at the exercise (Gartner, 1981,

This exercise

still with two

(this is

the
p.

student becomes
156-157).

be a very thorough and systematic

approach to teaching student to combine the two types of vibrato.

Starting at

the slow

metronome speed

of

= 6C

and gradually

progressing will prevent the student from losing support from the

diaphragm when shifting to the throat vibrato.

fc3

Chapter VI
h SOMfARISON STUDY OF VIOLIN VIBRATO AND VOCAL VIBRATO,
IN REGARD TO FLUTE VIBRATO

The writer has chosen to do a comparison study of the violin

and vocal vibrato to

vibrato

of

most

flute vibrato

professional

flutists wish to improve

the maturity

due to

their vibrato,

vocalists.

and

violinists

best to

it is

of the
If

look at

other couple of instrumentalists who have stabilized and somewhat

perfected their vibrato.

detailed

completely

The following

comparison

but

rather

presents material that could be beneficial

meant

not

is

to

be a

comparison that

to the

flute teacher

and student.

Violin Vibrato in Relation to Flute Vibrrato

The

actual

physical

of violin vibrato is very

application

different from flute vibrato; however, the following definitions,

history, and

teaching theories

applied to flute vibrato.

teachers are

The

in agreement

the performers tone.

of violin

majority

that vibrato

Hann, violinist

gives to

the playing

beauty" (Hong, 1985,

Vibrato is
analyze in

of

violin

dismal

and flute

is an important part of

and teacher

the following concerning violin vibrato.

vibrato is like a day without sun

vibrato could also be

(1923), wrote

"Violin playing without

and gray.

The vibrato

the pulsations of life, the cheer, and the

p. 76).

believed to

a performer^s

be one

technique.

of the

hardest elements to

Even though violin vibrato

contains a

physically mechanical

lot of

"By paying

own unique vibrato.

is full of

violinist seems to have his or her

Every

individual character.

motion, it

strict attention

it tis possible to identify the violinist.

to the vibrato

Therefore, it is said

that vibrato is the soul of a violinist performance" (Kong, 13G5,

It

p. 76).

is

possible

also

identify

to

most professional

flutists by their vibrato.

The History of Violin Vibrato

According to Alvina May Olsteade,

violinist by

the name

Hauk (professor at the Musical Academy in Kassel, West

of Werner

Germany) has researched extensively

into

the

early

origins of

Hauck believed that the term vibrato did not even exist

vibrato.

for the violinist until the middle of the nineteenth century.

He

well

before the

1350's, however they were given different names which

applied to

states

the

that

about 1719-1859.

the

Spohr.

human

voice

Around 1759,

the term tremelo meant vibrato from

Hauck also believes that the idea of imitating

occurred

as

wrote a

early

as

the

ninth

and tenth

p. 4).

Leopold Mozart

titled Violinschule,

Violin Flaying

existed

This was during the lifetimes of Leopold Mozart

centuries (Glstead, 1379

Amadeus Mozart,

techniques

For. example,

the techniques.

and Louis

vibrato

(1719-1787) father of Wolfgang

comprehensive source

on violin playing

A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of

In this book, Mozart instructs

the violinist to

imitate the natural sound of the human voice in regard to vibrato

(i'lOZctrt,

i?j3f

p.^uj/

65
Mozart

states

performers

that

"There were

continuously.

performers who

the fingers) consistently on each

note

not

vibrato

use

tremble (movement of

as

they

if

had palsy"

He also suggests that the performer apply

1959, p. 203).

(Mozart,

should

the tremolo or vibrato at the end of a piece or on a long note at

Mozart divided the vibrato into three types according

a cadence.

the vibrato,

to speed:

vibrato (Mozart, 1959,

Leopold

Auer,

increasing

the

vibrato

and

the rapid

p. 204).

violinist and teacher, offers

(1845-1930),

another definition of vibrato.

believes that

He

the purpose of

vibrato is to add beauty to a phrase of special importance.

vibrato should

also believes that continuous

his

reasons

are

somewhat

different than Mozart's.

concerned about vibrato being used

pitch

inadequate

or

problem

common

violinists.

among

cover

to

production.

tone

students

Auer is

for inaccurate

up

young

professional

Auer also cautions the violinist against over-using

listeners'

the

However,

He found this to be a

some

and

vibrato to express the emotion of music.

dull

avoided.

Auer

ears,

Too much

vibrato would

their attention to wander.

causing

Auer, like Mozart, suggests that the violinist should control the

vibrato, using
(Auer,

it sparingly

and mainly

on long sustained notes

1923, p. 58).

Another violin
outlook

on

the

use

performer and
of

teacher had

vibrato.

a more positive

Carl Flesch wrote his book,

Problems of Tone Production in Violin Playing, some

later than Auer.

eleven years

The following is from Flesh's book: "Vibrato is

more a determinative for the

intimate

spiritual

makeup

of the

C,i

tone than
1

for sound

production in

the physical sense"

Flesh,

p. 12)

934,

obvious

It is

part

essential

Flesch

that

violinist

the

of

considers

due

that

detached passages (rapid notes),

rather than

the music

piece (Flesch, 1934,

professor

an exercise

an

a part of

the middle of the

Sydney Robjohns,

1930,

Royal Academy of Music in London,

the

at

in

just

during the

is more

placed in

Then

p.12).

violin

of

the passage

be an

Flesch even

vibrato

of

to

not

long notes.

intonation

the

to

and

tone

embellishment to be added on cadential

suggests

vibrato

performer's vibrato.

of each

wrote about the individuality

He

said that "every great artist has a vibrato which is spontaneous,

and

individual,

capable

expression" (Robjohns, 1S50,

Robjohns believed
her own

unique style

performer control

shades

varying-

of

be

used

that every
of vibrato;

the width

any

and

p. 91).

performer should
however, he

place

have his or

does suggest the

The concern of the

of the vibrato.

teacher in the 1930's is no longer a question of

should

meaning

of

whether vibrato

except at the cadence.

Instead the

question is how to control the width and frequency of the vibrato

and how

to teach

it to

concert violinist of the

student

with

a student.

time,

controlled

suggested

vibrato

vibrato that is too slow or too fast.

students

next

to

each

Unfortunately, he only cited

Artist .

This

writer

would

Jaschar Heifetz, a renowned

other

next
He
in

one success

of putting a

the idea

a student with a

to

recommends placing the

a

string

in his

orchestra.

book, With the

like to note that today Heifetz 's

fo7

method is used with

flute students

generally successful

and is

once one learns to listen very closely to the vibrato.

Vibrato

consists
and

pitch on a note

of

it

questioned. Vibrato

this

is

by itself

degree

does not

necessary

component

missing

sharpening and flattening of the

the

variance

of

produce intensity.

intensity

produce

to

violinist's tone is the frequency of the vibration.

increase the

only by

using both

achieved"

frequency increases

together can

(Whone,

1973,

It

vibrato

that

these factors

potential.

truly
is

achieve

used

This is

wide or too narrow

different

enhances

tone.

vibrato

the

what usually
(too slovi

shades

of

the

emotion

a note;

combination
produce

violinist to

of
-a

However, when only one of

fails

to

causes the

or too

emotional intensity be
is

frequency and vibration that enables the

in

its urgency; but that

a true

p. 79).

The

"it could be

said that to widen the vibration increases the warmth of

that to

that is

fast).

reach

its full

vibrato to be too
The violinist may

color by varying the

or

intensity within a group of sustained notes.

Whone demonstrates

this shading of the vibrato with the following example

In the simple melody Flaisir d' Amour four patterns

havt been indicated, each one producing a different
character and feeling. How many more subtleties would
be possible v/ith the two factors of width and
frequency varied: and how much could be gained by
the ability to return to a flat note and to reanimate it by any quality of vibrato at will. It can
be seen, too, that the patterns in the example could
equally well apply to dynamics so that there
would be three factors contributing to the shape
of the music. But this does not mean that interest
depends upon a loud dynamic. All three factors can
be achieved by using the same vibrato at a piano
level (Whone, 1973, p. 79).
,

(,%

Whone also

states that it is impractical to vary the vibrato

the theme from

on individual notes during fast passages, such as

the Mozart D major Concerto.

were

one

If

vibrate

to

natural stress on the appoggiaturas

This technique

variation.

also

applies

When the

that he or she keep

it would destroy the effect

using vibrato

vibrato

the

order

vibrato during rapid passages in

one slight

it is necessary

between

flowing
flutist

the

with

flutist

the

to

flutist is

However,

tempos.

slower

note (when there is a

Such vibrating would give no sense of phrasing.

stress.

of the

every

on

notes during

also needs to drop the

maintain

to

clarity of

notes.

Another violin
to

flutist

vibrato."

is

Kogan,

teaching technique

Kogan's

Leonid

violinist

Conservatory, insists that the

play a

that could prove helpful

idea

professor

and

student with

slow scale without vibrato.

"trembling

concerning

the iMoscow

at

trembling vibrato

This v/ill enable the student

to hear a pure sound without vibrato.

Then he would instruct the

student to gradually return to the vibrato but only to the extent

that it could be controlled.

Once the student has eliminated the

trembling vibrato or any other basic problems with vibrato, Kogan

will work on the students continuous flow of

vibrato.

Basically

this means that the vibrato does not stop between notes.

A majority

of the

violin concepts

also be applied to the flute.

across

one

concept

on

normally applied to the

previously stated could

However,

teaching

violin

flute student

this

writer

vibrato

until a

that

did come
is not

few years later.

(.1

others believe

Olstead and

a violin

that if

student begins to

play in the fifth grade, after about two years of basic study the

should

student

1979, p. 72).

the concept

begin

work

to

on his or her vibrato (Olstead,

The flute student normally would

ready for

not be

of vibrato until after at least three years of basic

study including band in

private lessons.

school and

the public

This writer believes the reason for the flutist's delay is due to
the vibrato resulting from the breath support and

the violinist's

opposed to

vibrato in

the left

the throat, as
A flute

hand.

control of

student who is taught vibrato before gaining complete

breath support faces an uphill struggle in correcting poor breath

support.

There seem
teaching

violin

approaches when

two basic

to be

vibrato.

it comes to

Babitz, violinist and teacher,

Sol

wrote the following concerning these two basic approaches:

Some violin teachers believe in the old idea that
vibrato is a natural thing which usually develops
spontaneously during the development of the pupil
while others are equally certain that it can and
should be taught as early as possible.
(Babitz,

violin

Most
theory also
players.

believe
vibrato.

teachers

teaching

who do

with

the

natural development

the vibrato of advanced

favor corrective

regard

to

what

teaching also

is called a faulty

A faulty vibrato is considered to be vibrato

not enhance

the violinist's

needs to proceed

very

tone to

carefully

advanced

student's

artists with the most

beautiful

correct

favor

interfering with

favor not

However, those
in

who

1954

an

when

the fullest.

attempting

vibrato.
toxies

that does

The teacher
to

teach or

"The most successful

today were

not taught to

70
They were encouraged to listen to many

1954).

vibrate" (Babitz,

professional violinists who had perfected their vibrato; however,

the main emphasis was on a natural and individual tone (vibrato).
It was believed that the student's vibrato would

or

her

personal

own

speaking

become like his

A trained vibrato v/ill

voice.

sometimes lack personality, and it will sound mechanical if it is

However,

and regular.

too measured

student is trying to

if a

copy somebody else's vibrato, there are exercises that

him or

Usually the student's

the other person's tone.

her copy

will help

tone will still lack something of the original model because "the
real beauty

of a fine tone lies in its individuality, not in the

correctness of its speed

or width"

(Babitz, 1354).

This writer

agrees very strongly with this theory of not teaching vibrato.

Flute teachers
vibrato.

vibrato

divided on the subject of teaching

are also

Today there are just as many

as

there

are

flutists who

acquired

who

natural

were taught
vibrato.

The

difference is usually easily detected because the student who was

taught vibrato

tends to overuse it.

This student's vibrato also

tends to be a little too slow or too fast.

natural vibrato

will tend

to have

course a very individual sound.

non-instruction

of

advanced student.
require instruction

vibrato
Most young

A flutist with a good

more even

The issue

of instruction versus

only

be considered for the

should

students

(flute

subject.

recommends
He even

or

violin) will

on how to begin producing vibrato.

once they have passed the beginning stages of

Babitz

vibrations and of

that

the

teacher

cautions the

However,

producing vibrato,

should back away from the

teacher on

correcting

faulty

7/

vibrato.

"Teachers should use great restraint in correcting

vibratos, and particularly in the case of young
players, they should not attempt to improve an
adolescent vibrato to mature standards, thereby
interfering with natural development. Vibrato
fixing is a new and dangerous toy and should be
used only when natural development seems to be
lagging (Babitz, 1954).
Vocal Vibrato

vibrato

vocal

The

should

be

interest

of

one pitch

to another.

all

ability to

instrumentalists mainly due to its natural and smooth

move/glide from

to

However, it also is not

without problems and teaching difficulties.

"One of the most perplexing problems for the
is the

obtrusive vibrato"

(Anderson,- 1779, p.212).

in

The same is

Anderson believes it

also true in regard to a flutist's vibrato.

is

choral director

necessary to understand the entire philosophy of vocal vibrato

order

tackle

to

vibrato."

specific

problem

such

"obtrusive

as

The following categories contain material that could

easily be applied to flute vibrato.

Natural Phenomenon

Vocal

vibrato

representation
intensity.

of

is

considered

usually

rapid

and

continuous

as

changes

an

acoustic

in pitch and

Vibrato is considered the fastest variation

on pitch

that the human mechanism is capable of producing.

It

is

vocalist.

swinging of

an

important

quality

to

healthy

and

trained

Vocal vibrato is considered to have a free and natural

notes that other instrumentalists work so diligently

IX
The percentage of vibrato among the singing

to obtain.

Most singers find it very difficult

tones.

fusion

perceived as a

which

employed,

without

note

one

even

or

high, around 95% of their total singing

is very

trained singers

the
the

of

use

to produce

vibrato.

of

varied

pitches

one song

"Vibrato is

and intensities

why so many singers can use

explains

part

in

tones of

vibrato effectively to the enrichment of their voices" (Mason and

Zemlin, 1S66).
A well-developed

and timbre.

vibrates in pitch, intensity,

Vibrato should indicate to the

unfortunately this

energized sound;
vocalist who
than one

human voice

sings with

who sings

listener a

is not

vibrato is

free but

always the case.

definitely more interesting

without vibrato.

For

years string players

have tried to perfect a vibrato that is as free and as natural as

a

vocalist's

vibrato

(Anderson,

1S73,

sometimes referred to a good voice

to open

their throats

is

are

order to learn

instructor in

and use a freer, less restricted vibrato.

One renowned flutist who studied with

year

Flutists

p. 21 2).

Jean-Pierre

Rampal.

a vocalist

often

Ke

for an intense

comments (in various

articles and at master classes) on how one year of studying voice

enhanced
would.

his

flute

playing

more

than he had ever imagined it

Today only a few flute teachers

have truly

accepted the

value of having a flutist study voice.

Sometimes

straight

music such as in church

motets.

tone

music,

may be more desirable in vocal

e.g.,

Medieval

and Renaissance

However the straight tone does several problems that are

difficult to correct.

For example, when the chorus sings

with a

73

straight tone,

the intonation

differences

vast

vocal

colors,

tracts,

very difficult

are also

and

for the

sustain and they tend to cause a great deal of fatigue

singer to

The straight

for the singer.

in a

vowel

in

Straight tones

articulations.

critical and tuning

Voices are not as easy to tune as a piano due to

more difficult.
the

becomes more

often avoided, especially

tone is

chorus, due to these problems and several others (Anderson,

1979 p. 213)

The flutist has similar problems in

The major

tone.

advanced)

are

difference is

encouraged
are

repertoire with

less

vibrato

flutist will

original style.
from the

use of

than

This usually

tone.

vibrato completely.

Nonetheless

when

straight

tone

to play the Baroque

Occasionally the

normal.

requires

flute is not nearly as difficult

the Baroque repertoire in the

to perform

be asked

with

encouraged

even

They

the straight

students (young and

that flute

practice

to

periodically.

regard to

the

playing

in

to abstain

straight tone on the

The

to tune

flutist

as the
a

vocal straight

band or orchestra the

vibrato does tend to cover some of the slight variations of pitch

between instruments.

The flutist, like the vocalist, produces a

much more interesting tune with vibrato than without it.

The vocalist, like the violinist and the flutist, should not
be discouraged

in his/her

use of

vibrato but

encouraged to acquire an

individualized and

Often vocalists

aware of

are not

controlled vibrato.

the amplitude

that is projected to the listener.

producing is not always what is heard.

What

rather should be

they

of the vibrato

think

they are

7V

"What is perceived by the mind through auditory

feedback is the primary consideration of the
^control loop theory; thus, the singer, from
the onset of phonation, must try to change
from the tone he hears himself sing to the
tone he wishes to sing as quickly as possible
(Smith, 1972).
1

has the same problem in adjusting his perceived tone

The flutist

theory was

labeled and

They

this problem.

simply reveal

theory see Smith, 1972,

documented test results that

perceived by

is physically

details concerning

in correcting

offer answers

not really

attempt to explain what

(For more

Deutsch and Clarkson in 1959.

tested by

Deutsch and Clarkson do

The "control loop"

hearing.

is actually

the listener

to what

the testing

the singer.

of the "control loop"

28).

p.

The Physiology of Vocal Vibrato

There are

physically to

numerous

opinions

(Smith,

not

in

the

able

to

movement

the

regulate

singer

the

vibrato

sings

above

the

thyroid cartilage"

the

frequency variation
tone.

rate.

the true

which are

the singer is

Also, the frequency

pitch of

the tone.

piano, the frequency variation tends to

exceed one-quarter step above

forte, the

controls

When the larynx is in control

variation tends to be mainly above

When

of

actually occurs

Ethel Smith believes

laryngeal

high

vertical

1967, p.2).

what

to

vocal vibrato.

produce the

that vibrato is "created by

evident

as

The

the tone.
can be

vibrato

When

the singer sings

as much as one-half step

actually

acquires

the

characteristics of a tremolo when the singer is singing.

When

vocal

vibrato

is

correctly

produced,

the

vibrato

75
becomes an ornament that is directly related to

Physically the

support.

the sensation of

vibrato is controlled primarily by the

muscles of the respiratory system assisted

by the

larynx.

"The

vibrato is produced by minute alterations of body pressures which

are reflected in undulations of the breath column"
p.

variation in

This

2).

balance

of

attempts

length,

The rate

constant.
the

mass,

"the

the

vocal folds

the

of

pitch by

fluctuates depends upon

the pitch

suspended

control

to

tension

and

at which

the

1967,

the air pressure causes the pitch to

rise and fall as the singer

keeping

(Smith,

tension

two muscle groups"

of

(Smith, 1967, p. 2).

Variations
intensity,

vocalist's

the

in

therefore

exhalation

must

will

studies
constant,

interfere

have
the

with

demonstrated
volume

contraction of the

glottal

while

that
the

of

vocalist's

the

sound

muscles

affect vocal

under control or the

be

larynx to

sound pressure levels will cause the

that

pressure

air

Experimental

tone.

the

can

make adjustments

air
be

alone.

flow

is held

expanded

by the

Applied

to the

vocalist,
"if a tone is not properly supported and
a subject vocalizes on a less than optimal
flow of air, desired levels of loudness may
be attained by greater muscular effort at
the glottal balance [throat muscle], some
form of vocal strain will eventually occur.
Exhalation seems to be one of the keys to
preventing vocal disorders. It must be
smooth and no air should escape without
producing the maximum tonal sound that
the music requires" (Rubin, 1966, p. 22).

There appears
achieved; however,

to be some controversy on how this control is

most

teachers

teach

an

abdominal

type of

1t>

The

breathing.

upper

part

of

the

chest

is

inspiration position, while the lower abdominal

fixed

in the

muscles contract

relaxed during inspiration (Rubin, 1966,

during

exhalation

p. 22).

In his book, The Singer and the Voice , Arnold Rose (cited

in

Smith,

1967)

and

explains

breath

pressure

abdominal tension and diaphragmatic tension.

in

the

terms

Rose states

of

The greater the tension directed to the abdominal

muscles, the greater the amplitude of the vibrations and thus the greater the power of the tone.
Also, the greater the closure of the glottis, which
tends to increase the pressure.
The greater the tension direction to the diaphragm,
the less the inward movement of the thorax, the
less breath is expelled and the smaller the mass
of vocal cord in vibration. Conversely, the more
the diaphragm is relaxed, the greater the contraction of the chest cavity, the more breath is used
and the greater the mass of vocal cord in vibration
(Rose, 1962, p. 91-32).

Rose's theory on abdominal tension and diaphragmatic tension

and Smith's

electromyographic study of abdominal muscles and the

rate of vocal vibrato is very similar to Gartner's explanation of

diaphragm

and

throat

vibrato

for

the

electromygraphic investigation the flute

flutist.

teacher

From Smith's
can

acquire a

greater knowledge and understanding of what is actually happening

in the throat during vibrato production.

77
Chapter VII
SUMMARY

Conclusion

Chapter

historical

study

vibrato

which includes the

historical and pedagogical aspects which will

assist a qualified

teacher

flute

in

helping

individual vibrato.
limited amount

flute

of

writer's

this

In

students to develop their own

their

there

opinion,

are a

written in the area of flute vibrato.

of studies

Many of the commentaries that exist have the tendency to focus on

one special

aspect of flute vibrato, or they cover the topic too

The

broadly.

technique

teacher

flute

approach

or

today

of

before

possible

needs

to

know every

attempting to teach or

direct a student in producing vibrato.

Chapter II
It

necessary

is

knowledge
vibrato

the

of

one

history

one becomes aware

flutists have
be

of

used over

particular

to

of

teacher

vibrato.
the

have

to

a thorough

By studying historical

different

types

of vibrato

Pitch vibrato is thought to

the years.

vibratos,

beginning

around

1707.

was first used in the Baroque era as a type of

swell on a single note.

appear

flute

of

earliest

the

Intensity vibrato

not

the

for

have

vibrato

Timbre, also known as

existed
evolves

until
from

around

intensity

tone vibrato does

the

vibrato

dependent upon the physical make-up of the flute.

This

1000s.
and

is

IV
There are a few early sources which one can learn more about

the earliest

book (1528)

Agricola's

how flute vibrato originated.

books published on musical instruments.

this book is talked of as being used

Mersenne writes

about vibrato

as an

used as

is one of

Vibrato in

ornament.

a type

In 1636,

of tremolo.

The

early wooden flutes required yet another type of vibrato known as

finger

vibrato.

Hotteterre's

In

book

one

(1707),

detailed explanation of the two ornaments relating to

the wooden flute,

the

In

vibrato on

the battement, and flattement.

18th

century,

begins to develop.
a

finds a

vibrato produced by force of air

Quanta defines vibrato in his book (1752), as

and diminishing on a note with a finger flattement on

swelling

the nearest hole.

In 1761, Delusse writes about a breath vibrato

which attempts to imitate the organ vibrato.

19th century, interest in flute vibrato continues to

In the

The following

grow.

involved

techniques

producing

in

on different

flutists comment

authors and

an

effective vibrato; Jams,

Nicholson, Coche, and Carte.

Vibrato
concerned

the

of

with

late

shimmer

pulsation in the tone.

two

of

the

first

Taffanel,

flutists

to

century

was mainly

tone and a fast, continuous

the

in

20th

and

19th

and his

student Gaubert, were

advocate this type of vibrato.

Moyse, a student of Gaubert, calls the flutist's attention to the

use

of

vibrato

as

musical expression.

Moyse showed concern about

the misuse

In the early ISOOs,

of vibrato

and commented

that it was often performed very poorly.

Georges

Barrere

and

Gorges

Laurent were two of the first

7?

vibrato

flutists to bring

Viennese were

British and

United

the

into

while the

States,

among the last to even consider using

Vibrato was finally accepted by the American orchestral

vibrato.

woodwinds

by

However,

1940.

prior

1940 there was great

to

controversy on the use of vibrato in the orchestra or any chamber

wind ensemble.

was Barrere's vibrato that became the United

It

Although his

first vibrato.

States'

shimmery

in

quality,

tonal

flutist to develop

very rapid and

constantly guarded against the

he

William

overuse of vibrato.

vibrato was

Kincaid

was

the

first American

slower, smoother vibrato, with varied speeds

ana expanded intensity.

Taffanel,

might be

Gaubert,

Moyse,

Barrere,

American pioneers, they brought

and Kincaid

Like the

in their own time.

as innovators

thought of

Laurent,

forth new

and original concepts

to the flute world.

Chapter III

necessary to

It is

give consideration

and the different styles

stylistic practices

of the

of flute

to composers'

intentions

Chapter III considers

period.

vibrato in Baroque, classical, and

avant-garde music.
The use of vibrato in the music of
to the

J.S. Bach

flute sonatas, and three religious works.

works were originally written

Many of Bach's
However,

in his

orchestral works he used both the recorder and the

religious and

transverse flute.

Concerto No.

recorder.

for

refers mainly

The

were

Suite

in

minor

and

the Brandenburg

written for the transverse flute, while the

second and fourth Brandenburgs call for recorder.

There seems to

be some question as to use of the modern transverse flute instead

of the recorder as indicated by the composer.

The

modern flute

much shriller sound than the wooden Baroque recorder.

produces a

However, in Schweitzer's opinion the overall effect does not seem

to suffer

due to

this writer's
v/ill

tend

the use

opinion that

to differ

wooden flute.

of the

However, it is

modern performances

from the

of Bach's works

composer's intentions

due to the

changes in musical style and the construction of the flute.

among flutists on

Although there are differences of opinion

the

use

exist.

of

vibrato

in

Bach's

music, some common ground Joes

Both Uilloughby and Moyse believed that vibrato should be

used strictly

as on

ornament or as enrichment to the tone.

The

vibrato should be used sparingly and only for the important notes
and phrases.

Moyse spent

a great

time studying

deal of

vibrato in Baroque and early classical music.

the effects of

Unfortunately, his

results were at first disillusioning.

His sonority became harsh,

while his intonation became unstable.

However, through diligent

study of

the violin,

voice vibrato,

and continuous practice on

and tone that

the flute he was finally able to produce a vibrato

was superior to the other flutists of the time.

In the Classical era,

(K.313) and No.

the flutist's

the

classical

the Mozart Concertos, No.

in D Major (K.314)

repertoire today.
style

that

one

are two

in G Major

important works of

It is through careful study of

can

determine

appropriate use of vibrato for these concertos.

the

correct or

Although the two

t\

concertos were both completed by

pre-Classical

style

interpretation)

There appears

that the

Kujola suggests

writer

(this

to be

tends

no dispute

note and not approached from above

rapid changes

in the

design of

period.

some

vibrato

vibrations

controlling the

The

during the classical

vibrato changes

the

of

of

than

the

vibrato

in

speed, and

vibrato was used

The timbre

in

Also, metal flutes

factor

era.

A type of timbre vibrato was just beginning

important note

out as

melodic lines.

important

this

be played in

the Baroque

the flute

to be used in the classical period.

the

support

to

over the D Major Concerto.

as in

period might also have influenced

to bring

concerto in a

concerto should

D Major

such as

classical style, with trills started on the written

strictly the

during his

G Major

interpret the

and Peck,

Moyse, Kincaid,

flutists,

some

1778,

phrase or

a-

were much

wooden
the

to outline the

more responsive to
flutes.

classical

The

period

most
was

depth of the vibrato.

Vibrato is usually used more extensively in a flutist's solo

repertoire than in the orchestral repertoire.
flutist

does

instruments.

established by
account.
of a

not

have

to

worry

about

However, there are some

William Kincaid

In

solo works the

blending

guidelines that

with

other

have been

which a flutist should take into

Kincaid points out how vibrato can affect the intensity

note in

a scale

and v/arns

against the

use of vibrato in

running passages.
In the orchestra or

all the

woodwind vibratos

chamber ensemble
blend smoothly

it is

necessary that

together.

It is also

fcL

important that the flutist be in complete control

speed of the vibrato should

The

music.

adjusted

be

would

allegros

have

tempo

the

to

in the higher register.

while faster

be slower

from

determined

The register

playing should not completely determine the

flutist is

The speed and timbre of the vibrato should

speed of the vibrato.

be

of the

faster speed and be more

This writer does not agree with Taff on this point.

that the

The

Taff believes that the vibrato in the lower

brilliant in timbre.
register should

tone to blend together.

woodwind chair's

for the

in order

of the vibrato

music.

the

are reminded by Moyse that

V7e

there is nothing worse than a musician who believes their vibrato

is the

best and
Taff's

orchestra.

comments

on

D'une Faune

Taff's

Debussy's

and

vibrato

flutist's

the

following orchestral works; Brahms Symphonie No.

Fingal's Cave Overture

members of the

the other

blend with

will not

Prelude

in the

Mendelssohn's

a'

L'Apres-Midi

comments on these three works are accepted

and followed by most professional flutists 's today.

Intensity vibrato is
modern flutist.

main

the

style

the timbre

order to give the

vibrato

for the

However, the timbre (tone) vibrato is also used

in conjunction with the intensity vibrato.

garde music,

of

In

modern or avant-

will need to be altered a great deal in

effect the

composer desires.

In avant-garde

music a spread vibrato (out of focus) is often used and will tend
to accent the stuffy timbre which is produced.

garde music,

the composer

will write

over a certain pitch or pitches.

N.V. notes

are in

the flutist

Often

in avant-

N.V., meaning no vibrato,

majority of

the time these

low register or the extreme high

%3
registers from
flutist to

a3 and

above.

Some composers

speed and/or the intensity of their vibrato

vary the

in order to create the desired effect.

uses

composer,

types

three

vibrato he wants; N.V.

to

used,

Ilarby

instructions.

concludes

marking to specify the type of

(non vibrato), V (normal vibrato) and S.V.

even

is

He uses

how much vibrato is

writer

of

Reynolds, an avant-garde

Although Reynolds does specify which vibrato

(stressed vibrato).
is

will require the

detailed and specified,

his

in

vibrato

a sliding scale from zero to ten to show

applied to

to be

that

specific

more

vibrato

avant-garde
compared

a particular

tends

to

traditional

the

to

note.

This

be very
or early

styles of flute vibrato.

Chapter IV
Gartner's experiments

and studies focused on discovering if

vibrato is produced in the throat, the diaphragm,

diaphragm, or mainly in the abdominal muscles.

explained the
produced.

tv/o

It

separate muscle systems

is

the

contractions

the throat and

Ke researched and

from which

and

vibrato is

relaxations

diaphragm which produces the vibrato at a slower speed.

of

the

When the

vibrato speed increases the diaphragm is less involved, while the

larynx is more involved.

exclusively

used

over

During
the

fast

diaphragm.

vibrato

the

larynx is

Gartner gave background

information and a detailed account of the anatomy concerning both

the

breathing

systems
muscles.

of

the

and

support

abdomen

The diaphragm

are

techniques.
the

The two large muscle

diaphragm

and

the thoracic

is considered the most important muscle

gr

in regard to breathing.

Support is

fundamental prerequisite for good tone, whether

with or

without vibrato.

support

that

Gartner then explained and defined the

necessary

is

considered support

for

both a

to be

are tightened in an isometric manner

and exhaling

the inhaling

acquire.

Ke

the natural exhalation,

are tightened.

exhaling muscles

to

natural and unnatural process.

relaxed during

The inhaling muscles are

while the

flutist

These muscle groups

creating a

balance between

Therefore, the steadier the

muscles.

flutist supports the breath, the more control they will have over
The weaker the support of the breath, the less

their air stream.

control the flutist will have.

regard

In

experimental

to

techniques,

chose

be the best suited

proved to

This technique

electromyography.

Gartner

for testing muscle actions that are synchronous with vibrato.

measures

minute

generated by electrochemical muscular

voltages

contractions, too small to be seen by the human eye.

devices are

twelve

had

flutists

experiments; each

of the

participate

Gartner

which

straight tone and

They were then asked to perform

orchestral excerpts.

experimented

Gartner

electromyography

the

in

flutists produced

five different types of vibrato.

three designated

Electronic

amplify and record the electrodes.

used to

It

were

The four muscle groups in

the

abdomen,

chest

area,

diaphragm, and larynx.

Needle
muscles.
be too

electrodes

were

first

used to study the abdominal

Although accurate in measurement this process proved to

painful to

for the flutists involved in the experiments.

%s
The needle electrode experiments gave
The

electrodes.

skin

way

electrodes

special probe

electrode attached

had to

In order to

be constructed

interior end.

to the

sound

technique.

muscle

films

to

back

He concluded that

during

vibrato

findings

his

up

activity

the

which had an

then used X-

from the myograph

the arcothyroid

of

simultaneously

was

study the

A myograph was also

Gartner

used to study the activity of the larynx.

ray

of skin

rubber balloon was

insulate the electrode connections.

used to

use

were then used to study the

abdomen, chest, and larynx muscle groups.

diaphragm, a

the

to

active

with

the

Gartner also used skin electrodes on the face

laryngeal muscles.

to monitor the moment of the muscles around the embouchure.

Chapter V
There
today,

two

are

basic

types

the diaphragm and throat vibrato.

by the

is produced,

breathing.

wall muscles pushing against one another.

fluoroscope function

similar to

the internal structures.

useful

technique,

the diaphragm

a simple X-ray

Gartner's

probe

fluoroscope

reveals

that

Osborne

vibrato.

The

except it X-rays

Although the fluoroscope has

proven to

(with the electrodes

attached) is a more accurate technique in this

The

diaphragm vibrato

abdominal set of muscles which control one's

uses a fluoroscope machine to study

The

The vibrato is actually produced by the diaphragm and

the abdominal

be

vibrato used on the flute

of

writer's opinion.

the diaphragm does not cause the

vibrating sound that most flutists expect it to produce.

One of the most

important techniques

in vibrato production

%L

is

being

able

control

to

the

Weisberg explains how

speed.

vibrato is an pulsation of air placed on a pre-existing column of

Another important

air.

component of

vibrato is the amplitude,

which is basically the difference between the minimum and maximum

dynamic

flutist should cautiously watch the pitch

The

level.

when working on control of the amplitude.

The two basic methods for teaching diaphragm vibrato, are by

Garner
stated.

Osborne.

and

methods have been previously

(Osborne's

Gartner uses a combination

vibrato, which

is a

approach for

teaching this

approach and an intellectual

rote physical

approach.
It is also necessary that a flutist have

breath

technique

believes

diaphragm

that

before

trying

breathing

breath,

the

is

a vibrato.

Maxym

in

three

breath,

and

the reserve breath.

chest

maximum ability

produce

to

concept of

acquired

Maxym suggests a whole series of

reach the

a good

stages;

the

exercises to

help the flutists

in breath control.

This writer finds

the breath control exercises by Toff more practical in teaching a

student

breath

exercises

Gartner's

control.

in

teaching

diaphragm vibrato are very accurate and actually help the student
feel the

intercostal muscles working.

While Osborne's exercises

are very similar to Gartner's it is this writer's opinion that he

overemphasizes

strict

rhythmic

approach

to

the

beginning

student.
In throat vibrato the back

throat,

and

pulsations of

the

throat

the vibrato

of

becomes

tongue

the

more

increase in

is

restricted

speed.

against the
when

the

The vocal cords

a
opening and closing in varying degrees help to produce the throat

Gartner's diagram of the larynx and vocal cords help us

vibrato.
to

visualize

closing of the larynx and vocal

and

opening

the

cords.

Chapter VI
This writer chose to do acomparison study of

vibrato to

and vocal

The violinist and vocalist

flute vibrato.

were selected due to the stability and maturity

vibrato

acquired

has

violin

vibrato

history

reveals

comments

Mozart

vibrato and how to

cautions
apply

the

The

vibrato.

of

vibrato

on

violinists and teachers, dating from

Leopold

their particular

the years. The violinist offers the

over

flutist a very detailed

violin vibrato

only

vibrato

1700s

to 1973.

on the overuse of

violinist

the

predominant

by

early

the

history of

the

at

end

composition or on a long note, not during moving passages.

the violinist's tone.

part of

be restricted only to

emphasized
style.

that

vibrato to

hand, considers

Flesch on the other

slow

each

of a

While

be an essential

He stated that vibrato should not

passages.

performer

In

should

1930s, Rob John

the

have

their own unique

He also believed it necessary for the student to learn to

control the

width and

frequency of their vibrato.

Whone points

out that vibrato by itself does not produce intensity.

frequency

of

the

vibration

that

Therefore, in order for the violinist

really enhances

helps

It is the

to produce intensity.

to produce

vibrato that

the tone there must be a balanced combination of

frequency and vibration.

n
Whone also mentioned that a violinist
colors

or

emotions

by

varying the intensity of certain notes.

This is also known as timbre vibrato.

intensity

the

vary

in

may produce different

order

Flutists should

strive to

to produce different emotions or

Donald Peck, principle flutist with the Chicago Symphony

colors.

Orchestra, is able to produce an extraordinary range in different

colors or emotions

varying

by

both

intensity

the

and having

meticulous control of his embouchure.

Whone

does

recommend

not

varying the vibrato during fast

passages, instead he believe it

passages.

It is

should

necessary for

be

reserved

for slower

the flutist to keep the vibrato

flowing between notes during slower tempos, but to

leave out the

vibrato completely during fast passages.

violinist, insists that a student with a trembling

Kogon, a

vibrato play a slow scale without vibrato, so that they will hear
a pure

vibrato,

sound.

necessary for a flute student, working on

It is

to constantly return to scales,

and simple

long tones,

melodies so they will retain the true pitch or sound.

Babitz

introduces

violin vibrato.
at all,

the

basic

two

approaches

to teaching

Some teachers do not believe in teaching vibrato

rather they

think it

should come

there are other violin teachers who

be taught as early as possible.

naturally.

believe that

However,

vibrato should

Flute teachers have also divided

themselves into these two areas of thought, although they are not
as aware

of the

division as violin teachers.

of flute teachers tend to fall into the

Today, a majority

teaching category simply

for its simplicity or directness with the student.

i\

This writer

produce

to

They

vibrato.

with this approach.

the student first

the point

given at

Instructions should on be
begins

completely agree

does not

need

to be shown basic

diaphragm exercises (such as Gartner's) and be reminded to always

After this has been accomplished the

use correct breath support.

allow

and

vibrato

discuss

teacher should not

student to

the

create their own individual vibrato. When the student has reached
an advanced level of

skill,

encourage the

should

teacher

the

vary the vibrato in order to acquire greater control,

student to

flexibility, and color.

The vocal vibrato is

the vibrato

due to the natural and smooth ability to glide from

should study

one pitch to another.

Vocal vibrato can produce a

very free and

that other instrumentalists only acquire through

natural vibrato

very diligent practice.

A vocalist

of their

tone.

total singing

strain on the vocal cords for

well developed

voice is

intensity, and timbre.

able to

that all instrumentalists

produce

uses vibrato

for 95 percent

It is very difficult and a great

them to

also able

sing without

to vibrate

Unfortunately,

many

free and energized sound.

vibrato.

in pitch, voice,

vocalists

are not

Sometimes the sound

will become restricted due to the tightening of the throat or the

lack of

air support.

great help to a

making throat

However,

flute student

good

who is

closing their

can be a

throat and

sounds, or producing a very this or shallow sound.

As a new voice student they will relearn

to control

voice teacher

the use of air.

breath support

and how

Next the voice teacher will have the

student lower the back of their tongue, and

raise the

palate in

?o

order to

produce a

smoother movement from one note to the next.

vibrato.

teacher

The

usually

will

obstacles that might interfere with

highly recommends

that serious

only comment on removing

This writer

vibrato.

the

flute students take at least one

The student will walk away with a

year of private voice lessons.

greater understanding

own individual

create there

encouraged to

The vocalist is also

body's physiology in required to

of their

breath control/ open throat, and vibrato.

Suggestions for Further Study

The study of flute vibrato has become an
for

the

teacher of

prospective

flute

advanced students
as

possible

individualized as

vibrato.

understanding

It is necessary for the

teacher.
to have-

about

as great

knowledge and

flute technique that is as

This

absolute necessity

paper

contains experimental

studies, and a historical application to teaching flute, however,

current experimental
included. The

studies on

next step

would be to observe students at various

ages and levels whose teachers are

teaching techniques

presented in

applying some
this paper.

accurate study, this would need to be a

period of

vibrato are not

teaching flute

two to four years.

or all

of the

In order to be an

long-term study,

over a

This writer has found her study to

be very valuable and has already applied some of these techniques

with current students.

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