CHAPTER TWO: ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

Part one: Atomic Theory and Atomic Structure

A. Atomic Theory of Matter. (Section 2.1)
1.

400 B.C. - Democritus: matter is not continuous but is composed of unimaginably

tiny, discrete, indivisible particles he called atoms.

2.

1808 A.D. - John Dalton published first atomic theory:

3.
B.

a.

All matter is composed of extremely small indivisible particles called atoms,

that retain their identity during chemical reactions.

b.

All atoms of a given element have identical properties, which differ from those
of other elements.

c.

Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into atoms of another

element. (except by nuclear reactions)

d.

Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with each
other in small whole-number ratios.

e.

The relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

This theory explained Laws of Conservation of Matter and Laws of Definite

Proportions.

The Law of Definite Proportions. (applies to compounds)

1.

A compound is a pure substance consisting of two or more different elements in a

fixed ratio.

2.

The Law of Definite Proportions states that:

Different samples of any pure compound contain the same elements in the same
proportion by mass.

3.

Example: Water is always found to have the definite proportion 88.9% Oxygen and
11.1% Hydrogen by mass. Why is this?

Chapter 2

a.

Because water is composed of particles in which 1 atom of O is attached to 2

atoms of H.

b.

Yet atoms of Oxygen weigh 16 times as much as an atom of Hydrogen.

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c.

Thus the 2:1 ratio of H:O by atoms corresponds to a 2:16 ratio by mass. There
are 2 parts H and 16 parts O by mass.
% O = 16/18 x 100 = 88.9% O by mass
% H = 2/18 x 100 = 11.1% H by mass

C.

Law of Multiple Proportions.

1. When two elements form more than one compound with each other, the masses of one
element in these compounds for a fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of
small whole numbers.
2. Example. H and O combine to form two compounds: H2O and H2O2
Amount of Oxygen per gram of H in 1st compound
Amount of Oxygen per gram of H in 2nd compound
8.0 grams
16.0 grams

whole # ratio

1/2

That this was true confirmed that compounds form by atoms combined in fixed
whole number ratios.
D. Structure of the Atom.
1.

Chapter 2

Atoms are not the smallest particles. They are composed of three fundamental
particles:
a.

electrons (e-) discovered by J. J. Thomson 1897 (cathode ray tube experiment)

b.

protons (p or p+) discovered by Goldstein in cathode ray tube

c.

neutrons (n or n0) discovered by Chadwick in 1932

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E.

The Nuclear Atom Model. (Rutherford) (Section 2.2)

1.

Early model of atomic structure. (Thomson)

2.

Disproved by Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment (1910).

a.

particles very dense, very fast.

b.

Expected all to pass through with minor deflections from hitting Thomson-like
atoms.

c.

Actual result:
1.) Nearly all particles passed through the gold as if through empty space.
2.) Amazingly, a few rebounded as if hitting very dense
(See Figure 2.8)

Chapter 2

charges in the foil

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3.

F.

Conclusion: atoms are mostly empty space with a pointlike center of

having virtually all the mass.

charge

Atomic Masses (also called Atomic Weights) (AM or AW). (Section 2.4)
1.

19th century chemists systematized large body of data establishing mass combining
ratios of elements.
Here is an example of how it worked:
suppose they had the following initial data:
Mg and O combine ~3 to 2 by mass (to make oxide of Mg)
H and O
1 to 8 (to make water)
H and C
1 to 3 (to make marsh gas).
O and C
8 to 3 (to make main oxide of carbon)

2.

They then deduced a scale of relative atomic masses (traditionally called atomic
weights).

3.

Originally H was established as lightest element and given a value of 1 on the

relative scale; later eventually chose a relative mass scale based on Carbon (easier to
work with), and assigned C an Atomic Mass =12 because it was nearly 12 on the
Hydrogen scale.

Chapter 2

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4.

Modern Atomic Masses are based on atomic mass units, assigning the Carbon-12
isotope of C to have mass of exactly 12 amu.
1 amu 1/12 (mass of 12C atom)
OR:
mass of one atom 12C 12 amu

5.

On this scale, Atomic Mass of H is no longer 1 but 1.00794 amu.

6.

Atomic Masses are given on Periodic Chart under element symbol.

7.

Atomic Mass is an elements average mass of an atom in amu (averaged over the
stable isotopes of that element).

8.

Periodic Table Symbol for Element:

12
Mg
24.305
Here 12 is the Atomic Number, Mg is the elemental symbol, and 24.305 is the
Atomic Mass.

9.

Atomic Number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus. (Z determines which

element)

10. Atomic Mass = mass of atoms of the element on a relative scale (amus).
Future definition = number of grams of the element in one mole.
G. Atomic Number. (Section 2.3)
1.

Moseley (1913) - xray experiments showed:

Each element differs from preceding element on the chart by having one more
positive charge in its nucleus.

2.

Every nucleus has integer # of protons equal to # of e- (in a neutral atom):

H has one proton / He has 2 protons / Li has 3 protons / etc.

3.
Chapter 2

Atomic number = Z = number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (determines that

atoms identity).
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H. Neutrons.
1.

Chadwick (1932) discovered neutrons by bombarding Be with -particles.

2.

Neutrons = neutral particles in the nucleus having about the same mass as protons.
Therefore: nuclei contain neutrons as well as protons.

I.

Mass Number and Isotopes. (Section 2.4)

1.

Isotopes of a given element contain the same number of protons (Z) but differ in
number of neutrons in the nucleus.

2.

Mass number = sum of protons and neutrons

= atomic number (Z) + neutron number
Hydrogen: mass number = 1
Deuterium: mass number = 2
Tritium:
mass number = 3

3.

Nuclide symbol:

Example - two stable isotopes of Cl:

35
17

Chapter 2

Cl

37
17

Cl

17

17

mass number

35

37

# of neutrons

18

20

% natural abund.

75.77

24.23

mass (amu)

34.969

36.966
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4.

Atomic Mass (AM) of an element is actually an average over the different stable
isotopes.
35

Chlorine
mass =

34.969 amu

%
Average mass of Cl

37

Cl

Cl

36.966 amu

75.77

24.23

= 75.77 x 34.969 + 24.23 x 36.966

100
= 35.453 amu
= 35.453 g/mol

Average mass 35.45 amu = Atomic Mass of Cl

J.

Mass Spectrometry (M.S.) and Isotopic Abundance. (Section 2.4)

1.

M.S. measures (charge/mass) ratio of charged particles.

2.

Gaseous sample bombarded with high-energy e-, and some e- are knocked off the gas
molecules creating positive ions.

3.

These are focused into a beam and passed through magnetic field.

4.

Field deflects ions by an angle based on:

Chapter 2

a.

voltage of field focusing the positive beam.

b.

magnetic field strength.

c.

masses of positive particles.

d.

charges of positive particles.

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Figure 2.13. Mass spectrum of neon

(1+ ions only). Neon consists of three
isotopes, of which neon-20 is by far
the most abundant (90.48%). The
mass of that isotope, to five decimal
places, is 19.99244 amu on the
carbon-12 scale. The number by each
peak corresponds to the fraction of
all Ne+ ions represented by the
isotope with that mass.

K. The Periodic Table. (Section 2.5)

1.

Based on the observation called the Periodic Law:

The properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

2.

Examples:
a.

Elements Z = 2, 10, 18 have similar properties (He, Ne, Ar are chemically inert
gases.)

b.

Elements Z = 3, 11, 19 have similar properties (Li, Na, K are chemically active
metals combining with oxygen to form X2O compounds.)

3.

First noted by Mendeleev and Meyer (1869). Arranged the 60 known elements in
increasing order of atomic weight. (Atomic number was unknown concept then.)

4.

Periodic Law works because Z also equals number of electrons in the neutral atom,
and number of e determines properties.

5.

Vertical columns are groups, horizontal rows are called periods.

6.

Groups most strongly correlated with one another are:

Chapter 2

a.

Alkali metals: Group IA - Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs. (alkaline means basic)

b.

Alkaline earth metals: Group IIA - Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba.
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7.

c.

Halogens: Group VIIA - F, Cl, Br, I. (halogen = salt formers)

d.

Noble gases: Group O - He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn. (inert gases)

Broader categorization of elements into metals and nonmetals:

Slide 9

p.127

Figure: Trends in metallic character of A group elements.

8.

Physical properties of metals and nonmetals:

9.

Chemical properties of metals and nonmetals.

Chapter 2

Page 9

10. Metalloids form a sort of boundary between metals and nonmetals.

Some act as semiconductors = insulators at low T and conductors at high T.

Part Two - Chemical Substances: Formulas and Names

A. Chemical Formulas (Section 2.6)
1.

Examples: O2 H2O

2.

Shorthand for chemical composition of a substance.

3.

Chemical formula shows the elements present in a substance and the ratio in which
atoms of those elements are combined.

4.

Some substances occur in molecular form, while others occur as ionic compounds.
You'll need to learn to tell the difference.

Chapter 2

CH4 NaCl NH3

Page 10

5.

The chemical formula has a different meaning in those 2 cases. Examples:

a.

Water occurs as molecules = H2O. It is a molecular substance. Not only does

the compound occur with a 2:1 ratio of H to O atoms, but the substance comes
in particles H2O.
Model of H2O.
b.

The salt calcium fluoride is an ionic substance with formula CaF2, meaning that,
while the atoms of Ca and F are in a 1-to-2 ratio, it does not exist as molecules
of CaF2, but as a crystal lattice containing 1 Ca for every 2 F atoms.

Ionic lattice
6.

Chemical formula for an ionic compound merely represents atom ratios.

7.

Chemical formulas for molecular substances actually represent the make-up of the
molecules themselves.

8.

Various representations of molecular substances (See Fig. 2.18):

Chapter 2

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9. Molecular models are required to represent 3-D geometric arrangements.

Use HyperChem to show molecules
a.

ball and stick model.

b.

space-filling model.

10. The most stable forms of various elements in pure form:

a.

Noble gases - He, Ne, Ar, ... stable as individual atoms. (i.e., monatomic gases)

b.

Several common elements exist in most stable form as diatomic molecules - H2,
N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, ...

c.

Some elements exist as polyatomic molecules:

phosphorus exists as P4 (white phosphorus)
sulfur as S8 ring.

d.

Chapter 2

Most elements in pure form exist not as molecules at all, but in large repeating
arrays (crystalline solids)

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B.

Ionic Compounds. (Section 2.6)

1.

Dont exist as discrete molecules, but in large crystalline arrays of ions.

2.

Ions are formed when electrons are:

lost from metal atoms (like Na, K, Mg, Ca,...)
gained by nonmetal atoms. (like Cl, Br, I, O, F,...)
Na+

Sodium cation (Na missing 1 e-)

Cl-

Chloride anion (Cl with 1 e- added)

NaCl is not a molecular entity. Exists in a lattice (See Fig. 2.21):

3.

Chapter 2

Above was an example of monatomic ions. Memorize the others from Table 2.3 and
2.4.

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4.

5.

Chapter 2

There are several important molecular ions or polyatomic ions (See Table 2.5):
a.

NH4+

ammonium ion

b.

SO42-

sulfate ion

c.

NO3-

nitrate ion

d.

NO2-

nitrite ion

e.

CO32-

carbonate ion

f.

OH-

hydroxide ion

g.

PO43-

phosphate ion

These can combine with other ions to form an ionic compound:

a.

NH4Cl

ammonium chloride

b.

Na2SO4

sodium sulfate
Page 14

6.

Knowing the charges of various monatomic and polyatomic ions, you should be able
to figure out some chemical formulas for thousands of ionic compounds (see
Example 2.3 in text):
a.

potassium bromide
K1+

b.

f.

SO42-

Fe2(SO4)3

PO43-

(NH4)3PO4

calcium carbonate

marble, chalk, seashells

Ca2+

not Ca2(CO3)2 but CaCO3

CO32-

aluminum phosphate
Al3+

C.

Ag2S

ammonium phosphate
NH4+

e.

S2-

iron(III) sulfate
Fe3+

d.

not K1Br1 but KBr

silver sulfide
Ag1+

c.

Br1-

PO43-

AlPO4

Organic Compounds (Section 2.7)

1.

Chapter 2

These are molecular compounds that contain carbon combined with other elements
such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

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Part Three: Naming Simple Inorganic Compounds (Section 2.8)

A. Naming Binary Compounds.
1.

Consist of two elements; either ionic or molecular.

2.

Name more metallic element 1st and less metallic element 2nd.

3.

Less metallic element named by adding -ide suffix to elements stem name.

4.

Example: Some binary ionic compounds containing metals that exhibit only one
charged state.
Formula
KBr
CaCl2
NaH

5.

Example: Binary ionic compounds with metals that exhibit more than one stable
charge; the charge of the metal is indicated by Roman numeral in parentheses.
Formula
Cu2O
CuF2
FeS
Fe2O3

6.

Cation
Charge
+1
+2
+2
+3

Name
copper(I) oxide
copper(II) fluoride
iron(II) sulfide
iron(III) oxide

Older method used -ous and -ic suffixes to indicate lower and higher ox#s,
respectively.
Formula
CuCl
CuCl2
FeO
FeBr3

Chapter 2

Name
potassium bromide
calcium chloride
sodium hydride

Cation
Charge
+1
+2
+2
+3

Name
cuprous chloride
cupric chloride
ferrous oxide
ferric bromide

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7.

Pseudobinary ionic compounds: one or more of the ions consist of more than one
element but behave as simple ions.
Example: hydroxide ion, OH- ; the cyanide ion, CN- ; thiocyanate ion, SCN- .
Name of the anion ends in -ide. NH4+, is the common cation that behaves like a
simple metal cation.
Formula
NH4I
Ca(CN)2
NaOH

8.

Binary molecular compounds: involve two nonmetals bonded together. Elemental

proportions are indicated by using a prefix system for both elements (See Table 2.6).
Formula
SO2
SO3
N2O4

Chapter 2

Name
ammonium iodide
calcium cyanide
sodium hydroxide

Name
sulfur dioxide
sulfur trioxide
dinitrogen tetroxide

Formula
Cl2O7
CS2
As4O6

Name
dichlorine heptoxide
carbon disulfide
tetraarsenic hexoxide

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9.

Binary acids dissolved in water. When pure, named as typical binary compounds.
Their aqueous solutions are named with the prefix hydro- and the suffix -ic
followed by the word acid.
Formula
HCl
HF
H2S
HCN

B.

Name of Compound
hydrogen chloride
hydrogen fluoride
hydrogen sulfide
hydrogen cyanide

Name of Aqueous Solution

hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq)
hydrofluoric acid, HF(aq)
hydrosulfuric acid, H2S(aq)
hydrocyanic acid, HCN(aq)

Naming Ternary Acids and Their Salts.

1.

Ternary compound consists of three elements.

2.

Ternary acids (oxoacids) are compounds of hydrogen, oxygen, and (usually) a

nonmetal. (e.g. H2SO4)

3.

Nonmetals that exhibit more than one stable charge form more than one ternary acid,
differing in number of oxygen atoms.

4.

Most common ternary acid is given the -ic name. See following.
Examples:
Nitric acid
Sulfuric acid

Chapter 2

Page 18

Phosphoric acid
Chloric, Bromic, and Iodic acids
Carbonic acid
5.

Acids containing one fewer oxygen atom per central atom are named -ous.
Formula
H2SO3
HNO2

6.

Chapter 2

Name
hypochlorous acid
hypophosphorous acid

Name
perchloric acid
perbromic acid
periodic acid

The oxoacids of chlorine follow as example:

Formula
HClO
HClO2
HClO3
HClO4

9.

Name
chlorous acid

Acids containing one more oxygen atom per central nonmetal atom than the normal
-ic acid are named per ic acids.
Formula
HClO4
HBrO4
HIO4

8.

Formula
HClO2

Acids that have fewer O atom than the -ous acids are named using the prefix
hypo- and the suffix -ous.
Formula
HClO
H3PO2

7.

Name
sulfurous acid
nitrous acid

Ox. No. of Cl
+1
+3
+5
+7

Name
hypochlorous acid
chlorous acid
chloric acid
perchloric acid

Ternary salts: for example, KClO3 - potassium chlorate.

a.

Anion derived from -ic acid is -ate.

b.

Anion derived from -ous acid is -ite.

Page 19

c.

The -per- and hypo- prefixes are retained. Examples:

HClO3
chloric acid

KClO3
potassium chlorate

ClO3chlorate ion

ic acid ate
HClO2
chlorous acid

NaClO2
sodium chlorite

ClO2chlorite ion

ous acid ite

HClO
hypochlorous acid
HClO4
perchloric acid

NH4ClO
ammonium hypochlorite
KClO4
potassium perchlorate

ClOhypochlorite ion
ClO4perchlorate ion

10. Summary Chart: naming ternary acids and their anions. The stem (XXX) represents
the stem of the name, e.g., nitr, sulfur, or chlor.

11. Examples:
Formula
(NH4)2SO4
KNO3
Ca(NO2)2
LiClO4
FePO4
NaClO
Chapter 2

Name
ammonium sulfate
potassium nitrate
calcium nitrite
lithium perchlorate
iron(III) phosphate
sodium hypochlorite
Page 20

12. Ternary acids salts in which one or more acidic hydrogen atoms remain: named with
the word hydrogen or dihydrogen inserted after the cation.
Formula
NaHSO4
NaHSO3
KH2PO4
K2HPO4
NaHCO3

Name
sodium hydrogen sulfate
sodium hydrogen sulfite
potassium dihydrogen phosphate
potassium hydrogen phosphate
sodium hydrogen carbonate
(sodium bicarbonate)

Part Four: Chemical Reactions: Equations

A. Writing Chemical Equations. (Section 2.9)
1.

2.

Shorthand for a chemical reaction, showing:

a.

substances reacting. (reactants)

b.

substances formed. (products)

c.

relative amounts involved. (balancing coefficients)

Example: combustion of natural gas, methane. (CH4)

CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
a.

reactants - CH4, O2

b.

products - CO2, H2O

c.

Reads: 1 molecule CH4 reacts with 2 molecules O2 producing 1 molecule CO2

and 2 molecules H2O.

d.

Note - both sides of equation contain:

1 atom C

4 atoms H

4 atoms O

Therefore, equation is balanced.

Chapter 2

Page 21

e.

Note - smallest whole-number coefficients are typically used to balance:

1:2:1:2

f.

Note - mole interpretation is also valid.

1 mole CH4 reacts with 2 moles O2 producing 1 mole CO2 and 2 moles H2O.

g.

Species formulas in the equation must describe them as they exist.

Example: this is improper.
CH4 + 4 O CO2 + 2 H2O
This balances, but oxygen not shown as diatomic molecule.

B.

Balancing Chemical Equations. (Section 2.10)

1.

Problem: Write down and balance the chemical equation for the combustion of
propane, C3H8, in the presence of abundant Oxygen.
__ C3H8 + __ O2 __ CO2 + __ H2O
a.

First balance the elements that appear in only one species on both sides of the
equation (C and H)

b.

Then complete the balance of O

C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O

2.

All combustion reactions can be done this way.

a.

Try combustion of ethanol, C2H6O.

__ C2H6O + __ O2 __ CO2 + __ H2O

b.

Incomplete combustion of methane: (incomplete combustion refers to

production of CO rather than CO2)
__ CH4 + __ O2 __ CO + __ H2O

Chapter 2

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