61

FUNJ3AMENTAL.S

OF

THERMOMETRY

PART
MEASURING

IV

THE

STANDARD

RESISTANCE

PLATINUM
THERMOMETERS
by

Henry

OF
RESISTANCE

E. Sostmann

ABSTRACT
The
Standard
Platinum
stipulated
interpolation
perature
Scale
of 1990
from
point

13.8 K (the
of silver).

triple
The

Resistance
instrument
between
the
point
transfer

of

eka-hydrogen)
function
of

tance
as a function
of temperature;
of resistance,
referred
to a fixed
nent
of the
measurement
chain.
and
then
measurement.
1: FIXED
The
Hall

both

traditional

and

Thermometer,
for
realising
defining
fixed
the

therefore
resistance
This
article
modern

acronym
SPRT,
is the
the
International
Tempoints,
over
the range
to 961.78-C
(the
SPRT
is electrical

freezing
resis-

an accurate
measurement
base,
is an essential
compodiscusses
fixed
resistors,

means

for

making

the

resistance

RESISTORS

ohm is now
(QHE)
effect

allows
realisation
Hall-bar
geometry
temperature
near

maintained,
device;

in
the

most
National
Von Klitsing

Laboratories,
ohm.
In the

as a quantumapparatus
which

of the
QHE
ohm,
semiconductor
devices
are
placed
in a large
applied
magnetic
1 K. For
an applied
current
through
the

are
regions
where
the
Hall
the
fundamental
constants
varied.
There
are
a number
the
effective
resistance
of
value
is believed
consistent
uncertainty
of 0.2 ppm.

standard
field
at a
device,
there

voltage
remains
constant,
as a function
of
h/e2
as the
field
or
the
gate
voltage
are
of such
plateaus;
the conventional
value
of
the
first
plateau
is 25 813.807
Q (1).
This
with
the
SI ohm
to within
an assigned
lo

(The
use of the QHE ohm in nations
which
are members
of
the
Meter
became
effective
on January
1, 1990,
replacing
NBS ohm of 1948. The relationship
is:
1 Q(NBS-48)

of

= 0.99999831(NIST-90)

the
at

Treaty
NIST

of
the

62
Thus
the ohm is now
realised
variables
of experiment.
This
definition,
where
the ohm is a
units
as Q = kg*m2/(A2*s2),
or
electrical
Prior

properties
to

the

fundamental
as the
mean

of

adoption
constant,
resistance

were,
or were
generally
at the
NBS
(2).
Because
QHE ohm,
it is highly
National,
scientific
to rely
of the
reference

a column
of

the

as a universal
constant
independent
of the
is much
more
satisfactory
than
the earlier
quantity
derived
from
the fundamental
SI
the
still
earlier
definition
in terms
of the
of
QHE

the
ohm
was
of a bank

mercury.
ohm

as

standard

maintained
in
of 1 Q resistors

most

representing
National
(usually

services
lo),
which

similar
to, the 1 Q resistor
developed
by Thomas
of the cost
and
complexity
of maintaining
the
probable
that
most
laboratories
which
are
not

and
many
National
Laboratories
in smaller
nations,
as well
as
and industrial
organisations
in the private
sector,
will
continue
on the
Thomas-type
1 Q resistor
to maintain
the
local
standard
ohm,
and
it is to these
that
the
fixed
resistors
which
are
the
basis
for platinum
resistance
thermometry
will
be referred.

The
primary
requirement
for
a resistance
standard
is permanence
of
value
with
respect
to time
and
use.
(I do not
include
accurate
knowledge
of the
resistance,
since
every
standard
resistor
must
be accompanied
by a valid
and up-to-date
calibration
certificate).
(In
the unusual
case
where
all measurements
will
be made
using
the same
fixed
resistor
and
bridge,
and there
is no need
to report
a calibration
that
is to be
transferrable
to another
set of fixed
resistor
and bridge;
that
is, where
results
in terms
of bridge
units
for a specific
bridge
are all that
is desired,
stability
may be the only
paramount
requirement).
Secondary
and
highly
desirable
characteristics
are
(a) a low and
stable
temperature
coefficient
(b)
a low
thermal
e.m.f
with
respect
to copper
in the external
circuit
(c) a design
which
permits
dissipation
of the 12R heating
due to
the
passage
of the
measuring
current
(d)
low or zero
reactance,
which
can also
be characterised
as a fast
time constant
in response
to an impressed
input.
(d) is of particular
interest
when
the resistor
is used
as
the
standard
resistor
of modern
automatic
resistance
bridges
or comparators,

most

of

which

operate

at

low

ac frequencies.

As a generality,
all resistors
which
can be considered
as reference
standards
use
bulk
wire
as the
resistance
element.
An exception
to this
is
the resistor
design
of Vishay,
which
comprises
a fine
grid
of metal
laid
in such
a pattern
that
the
adas a thick
film
on a glassy
substrate,
justment
of resistance
to a precise
value
can
be made
by
physically
cutting
certain
conducting
lines.
The success
of this
scheme
in resistors
intended
of, for

to be
example,

stable
strain

standards
developed

is not yet proven;

there
because
of the
differing

arise
questions
characteristics

63
of the
proven

deposited
metal
and
to be very
valuable

Various
haps

alloys
the

are

most

available

important

Edward
Weston
and
4X nickel.
circular-mil-foot).

the
as

substrate.
These
resistors,
however,
highly
precise
circuit
elements.

for
of

the

these

in 1889.
The
The resistivity

bulk
is

composition
at 20C

wire

resistance

manganin,
is
is

an

84%
about

have

element.

alloy

Per-

developed

by

copper,
12% manganese
49.3 #J/cm
(290 Q per

The
temperature
coefficient
of
resistance
is
about
KLOOOO15
Q/Q/-C
over
the
normal
laboratory
range
of
15
to
35-C,
although
it
varies
from
lot
to
lot
for
reasons
which
are
not
well
understood
or
predictable.
It
can
be adjusted
somewhat
by
heattreatment
in
fabrication.
For
precise
work,
the
temperature
of
the
resistor
must
be noted
and a correction
made.
The calibration
certificate
of the
correction

specific
resistor
should
include
the
measured
equation,
which
assumes
standardisation
at
Q

For
properly
x 10 -6, and

+ a(tl

= R25[I

of

the

- t-25) + R(tl - t25) 2l

has
a value
smaller
than
10
x 10w6.
Fig.
1 shows
a typical curve
of resistance
versus
temperature
for
good
manganin.
The ,most
desirable
situation
is that
the peak
of the
curve
be located
very
close
to the
laboratory
ambient
temperature,
so that
any
effects
of 12R heat-

ing have
maintain

selected
9 between

coefficients
25-C.

minimum
standard

in
particular,
thermoelectric

manganin,
a generally
-0.3 x 10m6 and -0.8

influence
resistors
alSO

power

on
in

assist
versus

the resistance.
thermostated

in
copper

A further
oil or air

dissipating
is low; 2 to

precaution
baths.
Oil

is to
baths,

self-heating.
any
3 H/C.

The

In
constructing
manganin
resistors,
it is
particularly
important
where
the
manganin
joins
internal
copper
lead
wires,
the joint
be
by welding,
or brazing
with
suitable
materials.
The components
of
solders
can,
with
time,
migrate
into
the
manganin
wire
structure
cause
irreversible
alloy
(and
consequently
resistance)
changes.

Ei;
. m

fit&fJq
I

10

20
C

30

40
FIG.

MANGANIN:
resistance
for
selected

Typical
change
with
temperature
wire

50

10
FIG.

1
in

EVANOHM:
resistance

20
C

30

40

50

Typical
change
with
temperature

in

that
made
softand

64
Another
names
sistance,
larger

resistance
wire
alloy
in common
use
is known
by the
trade
Evanohm
and
Karma.
Its
major
advantage
is a high
specific
re800 Q/cmf,
which
permits
all resistors
to be made
of wire
of
cross
section
than
manganin,
and consequently
of better
mechani-

cal stability
in situations
of normal
shock,
vibration,
etc. incidental
to
use.
The composition
of the alloy
is about
75% nickel,
20% chromium
plus
a few
per
cent
each of aluminum
and copper.
The temperature
coefficient
is about
?0.00002
Q/Q/C
but
Fig.
2 shows
a typical
curve
I cannot
comment
Evanohm
relative
solid
solution
of

there

for

is no
Evanohm.

peak

such

as

that

of

manganin.

from
personal
experience
on the
resistance
stability
to that
of manganin.
I can mention
that
manganin
its constituents,
while
Evanohm
is an intermetallic;

of
is a
that

is, some
of the
elements
of the alloy
remain
as discrete
crystals.
From
experience
long
ago in using
potentiometer
wires
which
contained
aluminum,
I can
report
that
as surface
crystals
it is subject
to eventual
oxidation,
which
in potentiometers
caused
local
spots
of high
contact
rssistance,
and in standard
resistors
may be a source
of calibration
drift.
Nevertheless
the
Australian
laboratory
CSIRO
has
made
1 Q Thomasderivative
resistors
of Evanohm
with
remarkably
small
changes
in resistance
over
a number
of years.
The
composition
of Evanohm
suggests
that
all joints
to copper
be made by welding,
since
it is difficult
to wet
chromium
and
aluminum
with
soft
solders,
and
the migration
problem
is
probably

equivalent

to

that

with

manganin.
The

the
design
of
Thomas
1 Q resistor
is shown
in Fig.
3. Manganin
wire
of
heavy
gage
is
wound
on
a
temporary
mandrel
in a bifilar
fashion
with
turns.
spaced
The wire
is bare,
so that
full
heat treatment
(at 550-C
in an
inert
atmosphere)
may
be applied,
as would
not
be permissible
were
the
wire
enamelled
or served
with
a textile
serving.
After
heat
fiber

FIGURE
A Thomas
(After
Leeds

1 Q Resistor
and Northup)

basic

treatment,
the
helix
is slipped
metal
onto
a
silk-insulated
cylinder
and sealed
into
a dry
double-walled
container.
The
wire
gradually
librium
with
of contained

the
dry

reaches
slight
air.

equiamount

65
Such
years.

a resistor
is capable
The construction
is

pressed
resistance
tificate

current
from
will

of stability
not optimal

of 1 part
for heat

per
million
over
transfer,
and
so

must
be carefully
limited.
There
changes
in barometric
pressure,

furnish

information

about

is some
and the

several
any
im-

slight
effect
on
calibration
cer-

this.

While
the
1 Q Thomas-type
resistor
will
be regarded
by most
users
as
the reference
base
for
the ohm,
it is not a very
useful
value
for
most
resistance
thermometry,
where
it is more
desirable
to have
a reference
resistor
whose
value
is
the thermometer
at 0-C.
an 0.25 Q thermometer,

in the
vicinity
of, for example,
the resistance
of
For a 25.5 Q thermometer
this
might
be 25 Q; for
0.25 Q, with
1 Q another
choice.
Also,
one would

not wish
to use the laboratorys
Most
laboratories
will
maintain
lent
10 kQ standard
built
to
to build
up and
build
down,

standards
base
as a working
standard.
the 1 Q standard
and possibly
an equivathe
general
Thomas
design,
and
use these
by
ratiometric
methods,
to the
working

standards

value.

of

more

convenient
-

A design

of

working

standard
itself

which
has
proven
through
the
years
is that
of
Rosa,
also
known
as the NBStype
resistor,
shown
schematically
in Fig.
4. The resistance
wire,
which
is manganin
for at
least
the
values
of 10 KQ and
lower,
is insulated
with
either
special
textile
enamel
or
a
fiber
in which
cotton
and
silk
are
mixed
(this
mixture
said
to provide
minimal
strain
to
the
manganin
it covers
when
fiber
is
subjected
to
the
changes
in ambient
humidity).
The
wire
is
doubled
at
its
midpoint
and
wound
in bifilar
insulated
fashion
onto
an
material
brass
bobbin
(a
FIGURE

A ROSA,
CR NBS TYPE
RESISwithin
the
TOR.
The
space
housing
and
around
the therwell
is
filled
with
mometer
neutral
oil.

chosen
expansion
closely
wire,
heat

because
the
thermal
coefficient
of brass
matches
that
of
the
and
because
it aids
in

dissipation).

66
The ends
of the
winding
are
brazed
to a pair
of short
heavy
copper
leads,
the
free
ends
of which
are
connected
to
massive
terminals.
Externally,
four
connections
are
proved,
a potential
connection
and
a
current
connection
to each
end
of the
resistance
winding,
so that
the
resistor
may be connected
four-terminal.
A
Pl

four-terminal
resistor
schematic
is shown
in Fig.
5.
The value
of the
four-terminal
resistor
is the
potential
difference
between
the
potential
terminals
divided
by the
current
through
the current
ter-

P2

R3

R4

minals,
cuitry

FIGURE

A FOUR-TERMINAL
RESISTOR.
RS is the
resistance
to be measured.
Rl,
R2, R3,
R4 are
external
resistances;
e.g.,
lead
resistances.
Cl,
C2
are
current
terminals,
PI
P2
potential
terminals.
For
an SPRT
these
are
conventionally
labeled
c, C, t, T respectively.
The
this

finished
process

winding
cannot

assembly
be carried

so that
external
is
not
a part

of

cirthe

measured
resistance.
The
potential
and
current
terminals
are
interchangeable.
For
both
Thomas
stanand
NBS-type
dard
resistors,
the
potential
terminals
are
usually
binding
posts
and
the
current
terminals
are
connected
into
the
circuit
using
massive
mercury-wetted
amalgam
contacts.

must
be stabilized
out
to completion;

by

heat
treatment,
the
temperature

and
at

which
the wire
would
be rendered
ideally
strain-free
is higher
than
the
insulation
will
tolerate.
Thus
it is of great
importance
to avoid
ever
impressing
sufficient
current
on the finished
resistor
to heat
the winding
appreciably,
or additional
annealing
may
occur,
with
a permanent
shift
the
value
may
decrease
permain value.
During
the
production
anneal:
nently
by
as much
as 1% or
2%, and
this
must
be allowed
for
in the
winding
length.
The final
adjustment
of resistance
is made
coarsely
by
removing
locally,

by

wire,
and
abrasion.

fine

adjustment

by

reducing

the

wire

cross-section,

Rosa
resistors
are
filled
with
a bland
neutral
oil,
which
assists
in
They
are
equipped
with
a
central
dissipating
and
transferring
heat.
well,
into
which
a thermometer
is placed
to measure,
with
very
close
apA typical
manufacturers
specification
proximation,
the
coil temperature.
for stability
is 20 ppm per
year,
which
is, in my experience,
highly
conservative
for a unit
which
is handled
carefully.

67
Safe operating
currents
are stipulated
by the manufacturer.
and well-known
by operating
ues should
be posted
on labels,
The use of an air or oil bath
will increase
the safe operating
limit,
as well as provide
temperature
stability.

These
valpersonnel.
current

As far as I know,
the principle
supplier
in the US of Rosa-type
tors,
Leeds
and Northrup,
has never
qualified
or made a statement
the ac properties
of these
or the Thomas
1 Q resistors
of their
facture.

resisabout
manu-

NIST
does
not
at this
time
offer
a calibration
of standard
resistors
which
includes
a comparison
of dc with low-frequency
ac characteristics,
although,
according
to a telephone
conversation
(November
1991)
with
Norman
Belecki
of the Electricity
Section,
it plans
to do so in about
a
year.
The National
Physical
Laboratory
(NPL)
of England
has been offering
this
service
since
1987. Resistors
submitted
by Isotech
to NPL,
which
are used
in conjunction
with ac bridges
for thermometry,
are reported
including
a ratio
of Rf/Rdc,
where
f = 75 Hz. Fig. (6) reproduces
a typical
calibration
report.
2: STANDARD

RESISTORS

USED

WITH

ALTERNATING

CURRENT

Many
modern
devices
for
measuring
the resistance
of an SPRT
operate
in a semi-automatic
or automatic
fashion,
based
on principles
which
require
that
the
signal
received
from
the bridge
be ac. Usually
it has
been
possible
to arrange
circuitry
allowing
the frequency
to be very
low, with
an upper
bound
of 400 Hz and a lower
as low as 15 Hz. (I
except
an experimental
bridge
of Cutkosky
which
operated
at l/2
Hz,
but which
was never
commercially
available.)
The reactances
of reference
resistors
are a function
of their
inductances
(from
the area included
within
the winding
loop where
the wire is doubled)
and distributed
capacitance.
In general
the inductance
is small but
the capacitive
reactance
is not, although
it may be reduced
by such devices
as dividing
the coil into
sections.
Reactance
may include
effects
of the mandrels
on which
the winding
is supported.
The time constant
of
a resistor
may be expressed
as
T = (L - CR2)/R
and may
also
be expressed
reach
l/s of its final
value
for a-c bridge
service,
the
the full value
to be achieved

as the time
required
for
the
current
to
after
a fixed
voltage
is impressed.
Obviously,
time
constant
must
be short
enough
to allow
within
1 ppm or 0.1 ppm.

68
NATIONAL

PHYSICAL

Tcddington

LABORATORY

Middlesex

TWll

OLW

England

Certificate of Calibration
STANDARD RESISTOR
No 248712

Isothermal
Pine Grove
Southport
Merseyside

FOR :

10 OHM H TINSLEY

Technology

AND CO LTD

Limited

PR9 9AG

REFERFXE:

Order

No. gOPOO65/10

BASIS OF TEST;

NPL Measurements
Frequency Electrical

PREVIOUS
CERTIFICATE;

NOIF2

dated

11 May 1990

Services
- Direct
Current
and
Measurements
(1987).
Section

LOW
3.2

MFASUREMFNTS :
The resistor
wa+ immersed in an oil-bath
controlled
at II temperature
Of
20.000 t 0.005'c
for at least
2 hours prior
to and during
the meesurement
and was measured in a 4-terminal
configuration.
The power dissipated
in
the resistor
was less thnn 1 mW.
Resist@Jxe

Uncertainty
1
Confidence
fit least

9.999
The uncertainty
(1) AC "A
contributions

917 ohm
of the q eesurement

* 0.25

2
Arithmetic
Sum
of Contributions

Level
yjx
ppm

is quoted

* 0.43
in

two ways :

Confidence
Level
of at least
95% - where
the
have been combined in quadrature
where appropriate.

(2) As expressed
on certificates
individual
contributions
have been
of Contributions".

the
Sun

The& uncertainties
refer only to the measured value and do not carry
regarding
the stability
of the instrument.
implication

any

Checked

ES 94.69
ES 15%
bJ.il.

Page 1 of 2

to October
arithmetically,

Date of
calibration
Signed

1%

individual

- where
"Arithmetic

fieference

priot
added

ppln

7 June
O]
4

::.<&.

1990
IO, "irlclnr

69

NATIONAL

PHYSICAL
Continuation

~c:Dc

No 248712

LABORATORY
of Certificate

STANDARD

10 OHM

RESISTOR

H TINSLEY

AND CO LTD

R!z.sULTS:
Uncertainty
1

Test

frequency
IIt

l.ow

000

0.10

The resistor

Confidence
&least

Rf/Rdc

Arithmetic
Sum
of Contributions

Level
95%

f 0.9 pm

2.4

* 0.015

-,!H/Q

* 0.02

is quoted

in

of the measurement

two ways :

(1) At A Confidence
Level
of at least
95% - where the
contributions
have been combined in quadrature
where appropriate.
(2)
As expressed
on certificates
individual
contributions
have
of Contributions.

to October
arithmetically.

prior
been

added

These uncertainties
refer only to the measured value
implication
regarding
the stability
of the instrument.

Checked

pH/Q

wns inductive.

The uncertainty

Reference

ppm

EtA 534.198
Es 7557
+I 19

Page 2 Of 2

Date

1989 - where
Arithmetic
and do not

of

calibration

18 June

individual

1990

carry

the
Scm
any

70
Details
of design
can
be used
to reduce
the wound
coil into
two
sections
connected
pacitance
by a factor
of 4. Many
designs
been
proposed
to eliminate
residuals
over
These
include
flat
single-layer
windings
example
of sheet
mica.
Produced
by,
for
dustries

of

number
Dekapots

of

Portland,

Oregon,

commercial
and
Dekastats.

bridges,
Other

residuals;
for
example
splitting
in series
can
reduce
the caother
than
that
of Fig.
4 have
a desired
band
of frequencies.
on card-shaped
mandrels,
for
example,
Electra-Scientific
In-

these
have
formed
decade
boxes,
and
approaches
include

the
basis
the
useful
windings

of a large
and
familiar
which
pass

through
a slotted
ceramic
core
and
reverse
direction
with
each
turn,
etc. Difficulty
in manufacture
has prevented
these
from
becoming
widely
used.
High
resistance
elements
have
been
produced
commercially
in
which
the winding
is a flat
woven
web,
or patch,
with
a resistance-wire
warp
and a textile-fiber
woof,
in certain
Leeds
and
Northup
interest
for
platinum
resistance
A number
of
sign
standard
to several
and
Swan
Co. Ltd.
Calibration

workers
resistors

in
to

the last
several
give
the same

kH).
A successful
(3).
This
general
(4).
It is a Tinsley
Report

shown

and these
have
been
standard
resistors,
thermometry.

configuration
configuration
resistor

in

Fig.

used
for many
years
above
the
range
of

decades
have
attempted
value
for low-frequency

has been
described
is available
from
which
is the subject

to
ac

de(dc

by Wilkins
H. Tinsley
&
of the
NPL

(6).

Wilkins
identifies
a number
of factors
which
determine
the
frequency
characteristic
of a resistor.
These
include
thermoelectric
effects
resulting from
the nature
of the resistance
wire
alloy,
inductance
and
capacitance
of the resistor
resulting
from
the arrangement
of the resistive
element,
and
eddy
current
and
dielectric
losses
resulting
from
the
mounting
and
housing
and from
the
disposition
of current
and
potential
lead wires.
All of these
require
consideration
in design
for ac use.
Many
When

resistive
alloy
to

effects
present
generated
in

alloys
copper
themselves
opposition

have
junctions
to

thermoelectric
are
not

at

properties
the
same

as (a) Seebeck
effects,
the voltage
impressed

versus
temperature,

in which
upon
the

copper.
these

a voltage
resistor

is
for

the
sake
of measurement
(b)
Peltier
effects,
in which
the
passage
of a
direct
current
through
a junction
of dissimilar
metals
causes
heating
or
cooling
at the
junction
(c)
Thompson
effects,
in which
a voltage
is
developed
between
points
along
a wire
of uniform
composition
with
a
temperature
gradient
along
its
length.
These
effects
may
combine
in
various
senses
and
serve
to make
a measurement
of pure
resistance
indeterminate.
In these
cases,
the true
value
of resistance
is measurable
only
at the instant
that
the
circuit
is energised,
and another
value
may
be measured
when
the
circuit
values
have
stabilised.
The indications
for

71

resistor
design
coefficients
should
effort
to maintain
isothermal
condition.

are
that
(a)
resistance
be chosen
(b) the physical
the
alloy-to-copper
and

wires
with
design
should
the
winding

1OW Siebeck
exert
every
itself
in
an

In general,
the reactance
of low-ohm
(up to 500 Q) resistors
is inductive,
and almost
any reasonable
value
of capacitance
is acceptable.
It is,
however,
desirable
to keep
the inductance
low, since
the phase
angle
between
applied
voltage
and current
is largely
due to the ratio
L/R.
Low inductance
indicates
as short
as possible
a length
of wire
in the
bifilar
helix;
a condition
which,
for a given
resistance,
requires
wire
of
small
diameter.
This
is at odds
with
mechanical
stability,
which
argues
for large
diameter
wire,
and so a compromise
is required.
With careful
consideration
of all the above
factors,
Wilkins
has produced
resistors
whose
dc and
ac resistances
are the
same within
0.1 ppm
to
frequencies
as high
as 1.6 kHz.
3: AC:

POSSIBLE

EFFECTS

ON SPRTS

An SPRT winding
is not mechanically
or electrically
dissimilar
from
the
winding
of a standard
resistor.
It is a spaced
bifilar
winding
in which
the current
path
is in one direction
for approximately
half of the winding and reverses
for the other
half,
so that
it approximates
a non-inductive
winding,
but
may be capacitive.
Many
precise
measurements
of
both
Leeds
and
Northrup
pattern
SPRTs
and
those
manufactured
by
Isothermal
Technology
seem to indicate
that these
effects
are sufficiently
small
so that
the
measurement
deviation
due to electrical
reactance
is
not more
than
0.1 part
per million
at low impressed
frequencies,
compared
to d-c measurements.
(At high
temperatures
other
a-c effects
have
been noted.,
Studies
of the
best insulations
used
for the former6
on which
SPRT windings
are supported
indicate
that
the
degradation
of the
insulating
properties
of
quarts
and sapphire
is marked.
I have measured
insulation
resistance
in
a thermometer
of 120 MP per square
at 960-C,
which
drops
to about
20
MP per square
at 11OOC.
20 MP of random
shunt
resistance
cannot
be
ignored,
and
this
effect
is a prominent
reason
why
ITS-90
terminates
the SPRT
range
at the silver
freezing
point
(961C)
instead
of the gold
freezing
point
.(1064C).)
Such
a shunt
effect
would
be, of course,
as
undesirable
with
dc as with ac, but much
of the effect
seems
to be due
to a long time-constant
polarization,
so that
resistance
rises
over a time
which
may be measurable
in minutes.
Thus
the recovery
of most ~of the
insulation
resistance
would
take
place
with
a direct
current
impressed,
but might
not within
the reversal
time of an alternating
current.

72

4: DC BRIDGES
Resistance
unbalance
Deflection
sistance
quantify

FOR

RESISTANCE

measurements
of a circuit
methods
are
(except
as the
the last place

THERMOMETRY

can be made
by deflection
(magnitude
of the
which
is balanced
at some value)
or by balance.
never
used
in the precise
determination
of redeflection
of the galvanometer
is used to further
on the bridge
dials).

FIGURE 7
A WHEATETONE BRIDGE
which
ance,

is the equation
of balance
for the
no current
flows in the galvanometer

An
elementary
(Wheatstone)
bridge
is shown
schematically
in Fig.
7, where
A and B are
(often
of
fixed
resistors
identical
value,
in which
case
the
bridge
is
said
to
be
equal-arm,
a
resistance
decade
S, and
an
unknown
resistance
to be measured,
X.
At balance,
when the unknown
resistance
is balanced
by the
decade
resistance
(assuming
A
= B), the potential
drop
from
Junction
1 to Junction
2 is
equal
to
the
potential
drop
from Junction
1 to Junction
4,
so that
i,bA
= ixsX,
and iabB
= rxsS.
These
equalities
can
be expressed
as
A/B
Wheatstone
arm G.

= X/S
bridge.

At this

bal-

The equalities
of the balance
condition
include
the entire
bridge
circuit,
including
any
external
lead
wires
which
extend
to the resistance,
X,
which
is the subject
of the measurement.
These
external
resistances
may
be negligible,
for example
is X is very
large
in comparison
with Rll and
R12, but in an elementary
bridge,
they
are always
a component
of the
measurement
in series
with X. In industrial
resistance
thermometry,
lead
resistances
can be partially
compensated,
or almost
completely
compensated under
specific
restrictions,
(e.g.,
by inserting
a dummy
loop
of
lead wire in the opposite
side of the bridge),
but must be eliminated
for
precise
and
standards-quality
resistance
thermometry.
Figs.
8(a)
and
8(b)
show
two
methods
for
making
such
connections.
Obviously,
the

degree
circuit;
bridge

of
compensation
for
example,
is constructed

depends
compensation
with
equal

upon
the
other
is more
closely.
ratio
arms.

resistances
approximated

in
if

the
the

Sensor

FIG

8A

FIG

8B

Bridge
connections
for
an industrial
platinum
resistance
thermometer,
providing
partial
lead
resistance
compensation.
In 8A,
(a 3-wire
thermometer)
Ll is in series
with
the
battery,
where
it is effectively
not a part
of the
bridge
balance
circuit.
L2 is in series
with
RA, and
L3 in series
with
the
sensor.
In 8B,
(a 4-wire
thermometer)
Ll and
L2 are
in series
with
the
sensor,
while
a dummy
loop
(L3 and
L4)
comprising
a length
of lead
wire
equal
in resistance
to. Ll t L2 is in series
with
the bridge
balance
resistor.
The
degree
of
compensation
depends
upon
the
bridge
values
and
the
bridge
unbalance.

5: D-C

BRIDGES:

THE

MUELLER

BRIDGE

The most
commonly
used
d-c
bridge
for
standard
platinum
resistance
thermometers,
in 1916 until
the
advent
of more
modern
oped
by Mueller
at the NBS (5).
McLarens

four-terminal
from
the
inductive
seminal

measurements
time
of its
bridges,
work
in

of
design

was
develdeveloping

the metal
freezing
points
as calibration
standards
was
done with
an L&N
Mueller
G-2
Bridge
(Mat
calls
it a G-2*,
the
& to
recognize
a least
decade
he added,
and
my own
work
on the gallium
melt
point
was
done
with
a Rubicon
version
of
the
G-2.
The
Mueller
bridge
represents
a
modified
Wheatstone
bridge
with
a range
up to 81.111
Q, 111.111
Q, or
422.1111
(Anyone
which

Q (6)

is

visiting
rather

full-range.
NIST
well

will
be interested
concealed
behind

to have
a look
into
a door
to the right

the
of

Museum,
the main

74
entrance

to

original
bridge,

devices
which

The

bridge

the

Library,

in the Administration
Building.
Many
beautiful
are
there
on display,
and
among
them
is Muellers
first
he made with
a sheet
of marble
as its top panel).

is

always

used

with

equal

ratio

arms

of

moderate

individual

resistance,
e.g.,
500 Q or 3000 Q. An small
slide
wire
is provided
which
is used
to balance
these
resistances
exactly,
by interchanging
them.
Once
the arms
are
equal,
the
zero
resistance
value
can be determined
precisely.
Commutators
are supplied
for
these
adjustments.
Consider
the
Leeds
four
are

the
bridge
circuitry
and
Northrup
G-3

lead c,
integrated

C,

t and T of the
into
the bridge

shown
Mueller

in Fig.
Bridge

thermometer
circuitry

9.
is

(A complete
diagram
shown
in Fig.
10).

are connected
follows:

as

In

the

as

commutator

of
The

shown,

and

switch

po-

sition
of the left-hand
circuit,
lead
c connects
into
the
battery
circuit,
where
its
resistance
is of no consequence.
In
the commutator
position
of the
right-hand
circuit,
lead
t is
in the
battery
circuit.
Potential
leads
C and
T are in opof
the
posite
lower
arms
and
are
bridge
circuit,

FIGURE
A schematic

the
bridge
they
will

X arm
the
not

Therm

Therm

Since
tance,

ct

switched
to
the
alternative
arm
by
the
commutator.
Thus
battery
leads
are
exchanged
and connections
to the
decade
arm
and
the fixed
arm of the
bridge
are
exchanged
simultaneously.
The
commutator
is a
contacts
are
whose
switch
if
which,
mercury-wetted,

of

the

Mueller

Bridge

is 1:1, if the C and

and
the
each
other,

ratio
cancel
bridge

level
of precision
be assumed
to

they
are
condition,
resistance
microhms.

is

only

required
have
equal

the

resistance

clean
will
of,

T leads
are
net
resistance
of

the

of this
measurement,
resistance.
A reversal

and
in
good
contact
add
at most,
several

equal
in resisadded
to the

thermometer
leads
of

coil.

At

C and T canleads
C and T

FIGURE
The
least
Note

complete
circuit
of the
Leeds
and
dial is 10 pQ. Bridge
arm
resistances
that
the x0.1 Q decade
is subtractive.

(Courtesy

Leeds

and

Northrup

Co.,

North

10
Northrup
of 500

Wales,

G-3
Mueller
Bridge.
The
or 3000 P may be chosen.

Pennsylvania)

76
would
tance
follows,
of

result
in a slightly
of
the
thermometer
where
RI is the

the

second

RT

is

=RT+I,

average,

the

resistance

then,
(RI

of

the

C, or

thermometer
R2 = RT

coil

C -

alone,

and

is

+ R2)/2

= ;RT/2
In the
tances
versed
of only

is as
result

orRI=RTtT-C

R2 + T = RT t
The

resis-

balance:
R1+C

where

different
balance.
The correct
measured
coil
alone,
which
is
what
is wanted,
result
of the
first
balance
and R2 is the

= RT

t T -

C t

RT + C - T

= RT

manufacture
of most
SPRTs
so that
the
difference
in
position
of the
commutator
the lowest
dial.

Two
design
characteristics
be worth
noting.
The

of
is

first

the
the

care
balance
switch

Mueller
nature

is

taken
between
requires,

Bridge
of the

to

adjust
lead
resisthe
normal
and
reusually,
adjustment

are
elegant
enough
to
decade
switches,
which

must
be constructed
so as to be free
from
unwanted
contact
resistances,
even
though
on the
lowest
dial
the increment
of resistance
(on the L&N
G-3 Bridge)
is 1OpQ (0.00001
Q). No physical
switch
has
contact
resistances
which
would
not
represent
an uncertainty
of many
times
that
level
(the
best
switches,
properly
maintained
and
lubricated,
are
not
better
than
0.001
Q uncertain),
and
the
friction
of switching
frequently
generates
spurious
and
transient
thermal
emfs.
Nor
is it possible
to
The lower
decades
of
make
fixed
decade
resistors
of micro-ohm
values.
the Mueller
bridge,
x 0.1 Q and lower,
employ
Waidner-Wolff
decades.
When

a shunt

is
6R

The

reduction

applied
= R -

in
(10

and

the

shunt

RS/(R

resistance
-

R2/(R

to a resistor,
t

S)

from

required

S)

= (10
is

change

= R2/(R

t S)

that

the

n)6R;
t

the

n)6R

of

in

unshunted

resistance

resistor

6R is

is

77
S

[(R2/(10

- n)6RJ

- R

Fig. 11 shows a Waidner-Wolff

decade,
in which
a fixed
series
resistor,
Rs, is shunted
by shunts,
Rl...RlO,
that
can be varied
in 11 steps
from
0 to infinity.
Rs2
should
be exactly
divisible
by all the integers
below
10. One possible
value
for Rs2 , used in the Figure,
is 50.4. The minimum
shunt
resistance
is obtained
when the switch
is set at 0; for the X0.0001
Q decade,
Rl = 50.4 - $0.0504.

FIGURE
A WAIDNER-WOLFF

DECADE

11
OF A MUELLER

BRIDGE

Rs
R6

R7

R8

Resistors
Rl through
Rll
are the same for
all
adding
one increment
of resistance
per dial step.
of a number
of possible
sets of value.
For

R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
RI
R8
R9
RlO
Rll

all

decades:

=
5.6
=
1.0
=
9.0
= 12.0
= 16.8
= 25.2
= 42.0
= 84.0
= 252.0
=
m

Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q

If the ratio
R2/6R
of fixed
coils
per
which
must
be put
Fig. 11

Specific
Decade
0.1
x
0.01
X
0.001
X
x 0.0001

to the

decade

pi;
llo:504
JO.0504

R9

R10

RI1

decades.
They
shunt
The values
shown
are

Rs,
one

shown:
Rl
50.4
50.4
50.4
50.4

J50.5
45.04
JO.504
JO.0504

Note that with all dials

set at 0, the value
of the
decade
string
is not zero. This
non-zero
resistance
is balanced
by an equal
and trimmable
resistor
in
the opposing
arm of the bridge.

is made the same for all decades,

then
identical
sets
step
may be used
for all decades.
The
resistances
in series
with the Rl, when Rs2 = 50.4, are shown
in

78
The

effect

with
are

any
sliding
negligible.

ever,
sliding

of

this

switch
The sum

not
zero
contacts,

resistor
balance

is
this

arrangement

but
in

is
the

inserted
residual

A second
feature
Since
there
are
any
resistance
tance
of the

contact,
of the

of the Mueller
11 positions
on

first

to

place

so that
decades

a large

variations
in their

is
step

opposite

leg

resistance

in
zero

the
sum
of the
resistances
example
of Fig.
11, 9.167

into
the
resistance.

which

is

Q,
the

bridge
is provision
each
decade
switch

the
maximum
resistance
of the next
higher
dial.

contact
positions
in

of

in

series

resistance
is, how-

series

with

the

and a compensating
bridge
to
exactly

for
self-calibration.
(0 through
X = lo)

of
The

a dial
bridge

is the
resiscan be self-

calibrated
in terms
of internal
bridge
units
using
no more
equipment
than
a stable
decade
resistance
box, and
to calibrate
in terms
of absolute
ohms,
only
one standard
resistor,
preferably
10 Q, is necessary.
The
technique
is described
in manufacturers
manuals.
It consists
simply
in
first
setting
a decade
dial to 1 and
the next
lower
decade
to 0, using
the
next
lower
dials
to balance
an appropriate
input
resistance;
and
then,
without
to 0 and the
noting
pared
brated

changing
next
lower

the
external
resistance,
dial to X, rebalancing

setting
with
the

the
difference.
Thus
each
step
of the
bridge
with
the
next
lower
dial,
and
finally
the lower
in terms
of galvanometer
deflection.

6: DIGITAL

OHM

It is tempting
readouts
for

the
lower
dials
dial

decade
dials,
can
can

be
be

dial
and
comcali-

METERS

to
SPRTs.

think
In

of
multi-digit
general,
they

are

high-resolution
not
satisfactory.

ohm

meters
Most
St

as
and

9f digital
ohm
meters
present
much
more
current
through
the
thermometer
than
the 1 mA level
which
is the accepted
level
for
calibration,
and none
that
I know
of permit
two
current
levels
(say
1 mA and 42 or
1.414
mA)
which
would
allow
the
desirable
extrapolation
to zero-power
resistance,
to eliminate
the
effects
of 12R heating.
(As
an aside,
this
qualification
becomes
even
more
important
for
a user
who
measures
the
resistance
of industrial
temperature
sensors
of low
dissipation,
such
as
small

industrial

7: A
TION

PRECISION

PRTs

and

CURRENT

thermistors).
COMPARATOR

WITH

DC

THERMOMETER

EXCITA-

such
as the
Mueller
Bridge,
depend
upon
a
All conventional
dc bridges,
number
of decades
of precision
fixed
resistors.
Such
resistors
are
subject
to drift
in value,
due to a number
of factors;
strain
or the relief
of
residual
strain,
impressed
current,
atmospheric
and other
contamination.
not
difficult
to
do,
using
equipment
generally
Recalibration6
are

79
available
in
characteristics,
intervals.
Attempts

the

and
one
stable
fixed
resistor
of
known
must
be done
at appropriate
and
perhaps
frequent
The
resistors
themselves
have
temperature
coefficients.
eliminate
temperature
effects
by thermostating
the
bank
of

to

resistors
resistance
to make

laboratory

but

leads
to the
generation
of
alloys
and
copper
circuitry
temperature
corrections.

An alternative
to
inductive
dividers
very
turns.

accurate
Since

decade
and

ratios
there
is

resistors
transformers

of voltage
or
no such
thing

inductors
require
ac excitation,
theory,
at least,
the position
of
and
stable;
if the
entire
inductor
be effectively
erated
are
Based
on
(Canada),

dc

unchanged
and cancel

the
work
Guildline

of

is

thermal
wiring;

decade

et

at the
tradeoff

inductors.

junctures
is the

Toroidally

of
need

wound

provide
a means
for
generating
current
equal
to an integer
ratio
of
as dc inductance,
bridges
which
use

which
may
be at low
frequencies.
In
a tap on a well-made
inductor
is fixed
is isothermal
the tap position
should

with
environmental
in ac circuitry.

Kusters
developed

e.m.fs
the

changes.

al (7) at the
its
Model

Any

thermals

National
Research
9975
Precision

gen-

Council
Current

Comparator.
This
comparator
is unique
among
modern
bridges
in that,
while
the inductors
require
ac, the signal
applied
to the galvanometer
is
dc. The principle
is simple,
although
the
execution
is sophisticated,
and
is
illustrated
in
Fig.
12.
There
are
three
windings
on
a
highpermeability
core,
suitably
shielded
electrostatically
and
toroidal
magnetically.
If ampere
is, in a condition
of

turns
balance)

IINI
and 19N9 are equal
and
there
will
be zero
flux
in

opposite
the
core

(that
and

consequently
zero
voltage
induced
in the
detector
winding.
However
practice,
the
primary
and
secondary
currents
of a current
transformer
are never
exactly
equal.
A special
core
design
makes
it possible,
in
9975, to adjust
to zero
flux
with
a small
compensating
current.
The operation
an adjustable
thermometer

Current
from
a power
is as follows.
number
of turns
of the
comparator
(Rx).
A second
current
flows
through

supply
(Nx)

flows

and
a fixed

in
the

through

through
number

the
of

turns
(NE) and
through
the reference
resistor
(Rs).
When
the
bridge
is
in balance,
both
the
net ampere-turns
imposed
on the comparator
cores,
which
are indicated
on an ampere-turn
balance
meter,
and the difference
between
the voltages
across
the thermometer
and
the reference
resistor,
as measured
by the sensitive
light-beam
galvanometer,
as the
currents
through
both
are
reversed.
Reversal
at a selected
rate,
or manual.
This
bridge
is capable
1 part
in 10 million,
and its
expected
accuracy
and
in 10
balance

million.
and

It requires
rebalance
is

manual
manipulation
not automatic.

of

must
not change
may be automatic,
of measurements
of
stability
is 2 parts
the

decade

dials;

its

-------ItENER*TOR
r------A.7TR*wING SIGN*L

,- j

FIGURE
The

circuit

(Courtesy
Ontario,

schematic
Guildline
Canada)

of the
Instruments

Guildline

12
Model

Inc.,

9975

Orlando,

Direct
Florida

Current
and

Comparator.
Smith

Falls,

80

81
8: A NEW

AUTOMATIC

A relative
6010A
DC

DC

CURRENT

COMPARATOR

newcomer
to the field
is the
Measurements
International
Resistance
Thermometer
Bridge
(8),
announced
at the
of
the
National
Conference
of
Standards
Laboratories,

meeting
buquerque,
N.M.
in 1991.
The bridge
appears
to be a dc current
parator
rather
like
the
Guildline
9915,
except
automatically
balanced.
does
not seem
to have
the capability
to operate
in the off-balance
needed
to make
a chart
recorder
sweep).
According
to
Operations,
the
20 uncertainty
of the bridge
is better
least
significant
bit
and
linearity
and
resolution
are
ppm.
The measurement
range
is 0.1 Q to 10 kQ full-scale,
ratio
ranges
from
0 to 10 RJR,.
A suitable
number
of
rent
not

choices
had an

9: AN

AC

are provided,
opportunity
to

AUTOMATIC

Automatic
Systems
can be used
in
be selected
(9).
sirable
to operate
ance;
e.g.,
when
The

ac

carrier

all of which
see or use

may be multiplied
this
bridge.

OR MANUALLY-BALANCED

Model
annual
Alcom(It
mode,

Duane
Brown,
VP
than
0.1 ppm t 1
specified
as 0.01
and
provides
thermometer
curby

42.

I have

BRIDGE

Laboratories
has
developed
a line
of bridges
which
a truly
automatic-balance
mode,
or manual
balance
may
(The
latter
is most
handy
to have,
for
it is often
dea bridg~e
in a condition
of unbalance
approaching
bala chart
record
is being
made of a rising
temperature).
of

the

F-17

bridge

is

fixed

at

1-i line

frequency;

for

50

Hz supplies
at 75 Hz, and for
60 Hz supplies
at
SO Hz. This
choice
allows
maximum
rejection
of noise
from
the
line
and
from
active
circuit
components,
while
providing
maximum
detector
bandwidth.
The more
sophisticated
F-18
operates
at * and
1% line
frequency
(25 Hz and
75 Hz
for
50 Hz supplies
and
30 Hz and
90 Hz for
60 Hz supplies)
selectable.
This
feature
allows
the estimate
of any
effects
on the measurement
due
tn carrier
frequency,
and extrapolation
to dc where
necessary.
A block
diagram
of the F-17
and
F-18
bridges
is shown
in Fig.
13. A
stable
ac signal
is produced
by a carrier
generator
current
source.
This
drives
current
through
the standard
resistor
and
the unknown
resistor,
which
are
connected
in series.
The voltage
generated
across
R, is used
as the
reference
signal
to excite
the input
windings
of a multistage
inductive
divider.
with
the voltage
the
SPRT,
by
precision
ratio
bring
to zero)
from
the
ing across

The
inductive
dividers
secondary
output
appearing
across
the unknown
resistor
Rx,
the
detector
circuitry.
The
inductive
divider
transformer.
Its taps
are adjusted
to balance
the output
to the detector
circuit.
At balance,

inductive
Rx. The

divider
output

is
of

exactly
equal
the inductive

is
in

compared
this
case,
acts
as a
(that
is, to
the voltage

and opposite
to that
appeardivider
is also
a precise
ra-

F17 and FIB Schematic

Detector Waveform
Generator
Referknce
Switched
current
Source

I II 111111---l:zyI
llllll
I

Standard

b
^

Qadratre

fJ

Quadrature

Detector

WO

and Ratio
Transformer
,

LkeAmplifie?

Unknwm
Resistor

FIGURE 13

S!?hed
Gain
Amplifier

---L
Phase
Sensitive
Detector

Low
Pass
Filter

83

tio of the voltage

across
R, is identical,
the
ratio
ratio
Rx/R,.

Rs. Since
the current
set on the inductive

flowing
divider

through
is equal

Rs and
to the

The
nominal
accuracy
of the F-17
bridge
is lppm,
and
of the
F-18,
O.lppm.
The F-18
is optimised
specifically
for SPRT values
of 100, 25.5,
2.5 and
0.25 Q. The F-18
has 7: decades,
and
reads
resistance
ratios
over the range
0.000
000 0 and 1.299 999 9. A generous
selection
of operating
sensitivities
and of thermometer
currents
(from
0.1 mA to 50 mA
rms, (F-18)
including
a (2 multiplier)
are supplied.
IMPORTANT

REFERENCES

In this
text,
I have
tant
references
on
me:
Frank
lishing

A. Laws,
Co., New

relied,
fixed

as I have for many

years,
upon
two
resistors
and
resistance
measurement.

Electrical
Measurements,
York,
1938

Forest
K. Harris,
Electrical
Chapman
and Hall,
London,

2nd

Measurements,
1956

imporThese

Edition,

McGraw

Hill

Pub-

Wiley

& Sons,

New

York,

John

FOOTNOTES
(I) Norman
B. Belecki,
Ronald
F. Dsiuba,
Brice
F. Field,
Barry
N. Taylor,
Guidelines
for implementing
the new representations
of the volt and the
ohm effective
January
1 1990, NIST Tecnical
Note 1263 (1989)
(2)

James

L.
Bur.

a,
(3)
F.
dtandandd,

J.

(4)
[H.
England]

Tinsley

(5)
E.
F.
WWZ%d.M
547 (1916)

Thomas,
Standards

new
de&&n
Jour.
Research,

Ltd,

Mueller,
&OJL

Standards

House,

Wheetatone

R-ce

Kusters,

Its Measurement
In&r.
Sot. Am

wL.th

and
(1972)

M.
#ae

P.

ac/dc

Croyden,

bnidgea

and

Nat.

%he~notnat..ty,

Control
in
and A d-&ted

and

-en=2
Science
-en-t

R.

CR0

some

uccwoay

Stand.

Bull.,

4RR,

13,

(G-2)
and 8071B
(G-3)
Company,
North
Wales,

J.

Berry,

compoms?olr,

and

az6L&ance

Surrey,

Bur.

(G-l),
8069B
and Northup

McMartin

di/re&

ms.6ieAoa

5 (1930)

Wilkins,
M.
J.
Swan,
PaecLaLon
Proc.
IEEE,
Vol 117, No. 4 (1970)

(6) Leeds
and Northrup
Models
8067
Mueller
Bridges,
respectively.
[Leeds
Pennsylvania
USA]
L.
(7)
N.
Thamome-tay

p-aeci.&on

04

Vol

Industry,
compa-ux-to-t

Rea-istance

Temperature,
Vol 4 p 1477,
bridge

604

84
4edatanCe
Inc.,
4403
Smith
Falls,
(8)
and

thc%e.m~~~,
Guildline
Instruments
Suite
B-10,
Orlando
Vineland
Road,
Ontario,
Canada]

[Measurements
SW Murray

(9) Models
F-17
dells
Road,

[Guildline
Florida
USA

International,
PO
Boulevard,
Beaverton

Box 2359,
Prescott,
Oregon
97006,
USA]

and
F-18
Bradville,

Systems

[Automatic
Milton

K2YlES

Laboratories
MK13

Instruments
32811;
also

Ontario,

Canada

Ltd.,
7HF,

28 BlunEngland]