CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO MANGALYAAN

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) also called Mangalyaan (Mars-craft from Sanskrit
mangala, Mars and Yana, craft, vehicle), is a spacecraft orbiting Mars since 24
September 2014. It was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO) under the guidance of the Project Director Mylswamy Annadurai.
The mission is a "technology demonstrator project to develop the technologies for design,
planning, management, and operations of an interplanetary mission. It carries five
instruments that will help advance knowledge about Mars to achieve its secondary,
scientific, objective.
The Mars Orbiter Mission probe lifted-off from the First Launch Pad at Satish Dhawan
Space Centre (Sriharikota Range SHAR), Andhra Pradesh, using a Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle (PSLV) rocket C25 at 09:08 UTC (14:38 IST) on 5 November 2013. The launch
window was approximately 20 days long and started on 28 October 2013. The MOM probe
spent about a month in geocentric, low-Earth orbit, where it made a series of seven altituderaising orbital maneuvers before trans-Mars injection on 30 November 2013 (UTC). After a
298-day transit to Mars, it was successfully inserted into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014.
It is India's first interplanetary mission and ISRO has become the fourth space agency to
reach Mars, after the Soviet space program, NASA, and the European Space Agency. It is
also the first nation to reach Mars orbit on its first attempt, and the first Asian nation to do
so.
The spacecraft is currently being monitored from the Spacecraft Control Centre at ISRO
Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) in Bangalore with support
from Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN) antennae at Byalalu.

Fig 1.1 Artists Rendering of MOM orbiting MARS

1.2 HISTORY
The MOM mission concept began with a feasibility study in 2010, after the launch of lunar
satellite Chandrayaan-1in 2008. The government of India approved the project on 3 August
2012, after the Indian Space Research Organization completed
125 crore (US$20 million) of required studies for the orbiter. The total project cost may
be 454 crore (US$74 million). The satellite costs 153 crore (US$25 million) and the rest of
the budget has been attributed to ground stations and relay upgrades that will be used for
other ISRO projects.
The space agency had planned the launch on 28 October 2013 but was postponed to 5
November 2013 following the delay in ISRO's spacecraft tracking ships to take up predetermined positions due to poor weather in the Pacific Ocean. Launch opportunities for a
fuel-saving Hohmann transfer orbit occur every 26 months, in this case, 2016 and 2018. The
Mars Orbiter's on-orbit mission life is six-to-ten months.
Assembly of the PSLV-XL launch vehicle, designated C25, started on 5 August 2013. The
mounting of the five scientific instruments was completed at ISRO Satellite
Centre, Bangalore, and the finished spacecraft was shipped to Sriharikota on 2 October 2013
for integration to the PSLV-XL launch vehicle. The satellite's development was fast-tracked
and completed in a record 15 months. Despite the US federal government shutdown, NASA
reaffirmed on 5 October 2013 it would provide communications and navigation support to
the mission. During a meeting in 30 September 2014, NASA and ISRO officials signed an
agreement to establish a pathway for future joint missions to explore Mars. One of the
working group's objectives will be to explore potential coordinated observations and science
analysis between MAVEN orbiter and MOM, as well as other current and future Mars
missions.
The ISRO plans to send a follow-up mission with a greater scientific payload to Mars in the
20172020 timeframe; it would include an orbiter and a stationary lander.
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1.3 COST
The total cost of the mission was approximately

450 Crore (US$73 million), making it

the least-expensive Mars mission to date .The low cost of the mission was ascribed by
Kopillil Radhakrishnan, the chairman of ISRO, to various factors, including a "modular
approach", a small number of ground tests and long (18-20 hour) working days for
scientists. BBC's Jonathan Amos mentioned lower worker costs, home-grown technologies,
simpler design, and significantly less complicated payload than NASA's MAVEN. An
opinion piece in The Hindu pointed out that the cost was equivalent to less than a single bus
ride for each of India's population of 1.2 billion.

1.4 OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of the Mars Orbiter Mission is to showcase India's rocket launch
systems, spacecraft-building and operations capabilities. Specifically, the primary objective
is to develop the technologies required for design, planning, management and operations of
an interplanetary mission, comprising the following major tasks:

design and realization of a Mars orbiter with a capability to perform Earth-bound

maneuvers, cruise phase of 300 days, Mars orbit insertion / capture, and on-orbit phase
around Mars;

deep-space communication, navigation, mission planning and management;

Incorporate autonomous features to handle contingency situations.

The secondary objective is to explore Mars Surface features, morphology, mineralogy and
Martian atmosphere using indigenous scientific instruments.
1.5 SPAECRAFT SPECIFICATION

Mass: The lift-off mass was 1,350 kg (2,980 lb), including 852 kg (1,878 lb) of
propellant.

Bus: The spacecraft's bus is a modified I-1 K structure and propulsion hardware
configuration, similar to Chandrayaan 1, India's lunar orbiter that operated from 2008 to
2009, with specific improvements and upgrades needed for a Mars mission. The satellite
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structure is constructed of aluminium and composite fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP)

sandwich construction.

Power: Electric power is generated by three solar array panels of 1.8 m 1.4 m (5 ft
11 in 4 ft 7 in) each (7.56 m2 (81.4 sq ft) total), for a maximum of 840 watts of power
generation in Mars orbit. Electricity is stored in a 36 Ah Li-ion battery.

Propulsion: A liquid fuel engine with a thrust of 440 Newton is used for orbit raising
and insertion into Mars orbit. The orbiter also has eight 22-newton thrusters for attitude
control. Its propellant mass is 852 kg.

1.6 PAYLOADS
The 15 kg (33 lb) scientific payload consists of five instruments: Mars Orbiter Mission
carries five scientific payloads to observe Martian surface, atmosphere and exosphere
extending up to 80,000 km for a detailed understanding of the evolution of that planet,
especially the related geologic and the possible biogenic processes on that interesting planet.
These payloads consist of a camera, two spectrometers, a radiometer and a photometer.
Together, they have a weight of about 15 kg.

Figure 1.2: Design of MOM Spacecraft showing payloads at their respective mounting
locations

1.7 TELEMETRY AND COMMAND

The Indian Space Research Organization Telemetry, Tracking and Command
Network performed navigation and tracking operations for the launch with ground stations
at Sriharikota, Port
Blair, Brunei and Biak in Indonesia, and
after
the
spacecraft's apogee became more than 100,000 km, an 18-metre (59 ft) and an 32 m (105 ft)
diameter antenna of the Indian Deep Space Network were utilized. The 18-metre (59 ft)
dish-antenna was used for communication with the craft until April 2014, after which the
larger 32 m (105 ft) antenna was used. NASA's Deep Space Network is providing position
data through its three stations located in Canberra, Madrid and Goldstone on the US West
Coast during the non-visible period of ISRO's network. The South African National Space
Agency's (SANSA) Hartebeesthoek (HBK) ground station is also providing satellite
tracking, telemetry and command services.
1.8 COMMUNICATION
Communications are handled by two 230-watt TWTAs and two coherent transponders. The
antenna array consists of a low-gain antenna, a medium-gain antenna and a high-gain
antenna. The high-gain antenna system is based on a single 2.2-metre (7 ft 3 in) reflector
illuminated by a feed at S-band. It is used to transmit and receive the telemetry, tracking,
commanding and data to and from the Indian Deep Space Network.
1.9 LAUNCH
As originally conceived, ISRO would have launched MOM on its Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicle (GSLV), but as the GSLV failed twice in 2010 and ISRO was continuing to
sort out issues with its cryogenic engine, it was not advisable to wait for the new batch of
rockets as that would have delayed the MOM project for at least three years. ISRO opted to
switch to the less-powerful Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV). There is no way to
launch on a direct-to-Mars trajectory with the PSLV as it does not have the thrust required.
Instead, ISRO would first launch it into Earth orbit and slowly boost toward an
interplanetary trajectory using multiple perigee burns to maximize the Oberth effect. The
orbiter's dry mass is 500 kg (1,100 lb), and it carries 852 kg (1,878 lb) of fuel and oxidizer.
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Its main engine, which is a derivative of the system used on India's communications
satellites, uses the bipropellant combination monomethyl hydrazine and dinitrogen
tetroxide to achieve the thrust necessary for escape velocity from Earth. It was also used to
slow down the probe for Mars orbit insertion and, subsequently, for orbit corrections.
1.10 OBJECT RAISING MANOEUVRES
Several orbit raising operations were conducted from the Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC)
at ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) at Peenya, Bangalore on 6,
7, 8, 10, 12 and 16 November by using the spacecraft's on-board propulsion system and a
series of perigee burns. The aim was to gradually build up the necessary escape
velocity (11.2 km/s) to break free from Earth's gravitational pull while minimizing
propellant use. The first three of the five planned orbit raising maneuvers were completed
with nominal results, while the fourth was only partially successful. However, a subsequent
supplementary maneuvers raised the orbit to the intended altitude aimed for in the original
fourth maneuver. A total of six burns were completed while the spacecraft remained in Earth
orbit, with a seventh burn conducted on 30 November to insert MOM into a
heliocentric orbit for its transit to Mars.
The first orbit-raising maneuver was performed on 6 November 2013 at
19:47 UTC when the 440 newtons (99 lbf) liquid engine of the spacecraft
was fired for 416 seconds. With this engine firing, the
spacecraft's apogee was raised to 28,825 km, with a perigee of 252 km.
The second orbit raising maneuver was performed on 7 November 2013
at 20:48 UTC, with a burn time of 570.6 seconds resulting in an apogee of
40,186 km. The third orbit raising manoeuvre was performed on 8
November 2013 at 20:40 UTC, with a burn time of 707 seconds resulting
in an apogee of 71,636 km.
The fourth orbit raising maneuvers, starting at 20:36 UTC on 10
November 2013, imparted an incremental velocity of 35 m/s to the
spacecraft instead of the planned 135 m/s as a result of under burn by
the motor. Because of this, the apogee was boosted to 78,276 km instead
of the planned 100,000 km. When testing the redundancies built-in for
the propulsion system, the flow to the liquid engine stopped, with
consequent reduction in incremental velocity. During the fourth orbit
burn, the primary and redundant coils of the solenoid flow control valve
of 440 newton liquid engine and logic for thrust augmentation by the
attitude control thrusters were being tested. When both primary and
redundant coils were energized together during the planned modes, the
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flow to the liquid engine stopped. Operating both the coils simultaneously
is not possible for future operations, however they could be operated
independently of each other, in sequence. As a result of the fourth
planned burn coming up short, an additional unscheduled burn was
performed on 12 November 2013 that increased the apogee to
118,642 km, a slightly higher altitude than originally intended in the
fourth maneuver. The apogee was raised to 192,874 km on 15 November
2013, 19:57 UTC in the final orbit raising maneuver.

Figure 1.3: Orbit Trajectory Diagram (not to scale)

1.11 TRAJECTORY CORRECTION MANEUVERS

Four trajectory corrections were originally planned, but only three were carried out. The first
trajectory correction maneuver (TCM) was carried out on 11 December 2013, 01:00 UTC,
by firing the 22 newtons (4.9 lbf) thrusters for a duration of 40.5 seconds. As observed in
April 2014, MOM is following the designed trajectory so closely that the trajectory
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correction maneuver planned in April 2014 was not required. The second trajectory
correction maneuver was performed on 11 June 2014, at 16:30 hrs IST by firing the
spacecraft's 22 newton thrusters for a duration of 16 seconds. The third planned trajectory
correction maneuver was postponed, due to the orbiter's trajectory closely matching the
planned trajectory. The third trajectory correction was also a deceleration test 3.9 seconds
long on 22 September 2014.

CHAPTER 2
ISRO (INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH ORGANISATION)

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, /sro/; Hindi:
Bhratya Antariks ha Anusandhn Sangat han) is the primaryspace agency of India.
ISRO is among the largest government space agencies in the world. Its primary objective is
to advance space technology and use its applications for national benefit.
Established in 1969, ISRO superseded the erstwhile Indian National Committee for Space
Research (INCOSPAR). Headquartered in Bangalore, ISRO is under the administrative
control of the Department of Space of the Government of India.
ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19
April in 1975. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indianmade launch vehicle, SLV-3. ISRO subsequently developed two other rockets: the Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching satellites into polar orbits and the
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary
orbits. These rockets have launched numerous communications satellites and earth
observation satellites. Satellite navigation systems like GAGAN and IRNSS have been
deployed. In January 2014, ISRO successfully used an indigenous cryogenic engine in a
GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT-14.
On 22 October 2008, ISRO sent its first mission to the Moon, Chandrayaan-1. On 5
November 2013, ISRO launched its Mars Orbiter Mission, which successfully entered
the Mars orbit on 24 September 2014, making India the first nation to succeed on its maiden
attempt, and ISRO the first Asian space agency to reach Mars orbit.[6] Future plans include
development of GSLV Mk III (for launch of heavier satellites), development of a reusable
launch vehicle, human spaceflight, further lunar exploration, interplanetary probes, a
satellite to study the Sun, etc.
Over the years, ISRO has also conducted a variety of operations for both Indian and foreign
clients. ISRO has several field installations as assets, and cooperates with the international
community as a part of several bilateral and multilateral agreements. In June 2014, it
launched five foreign satellites by the PSLV. There are plans for the development and launch
of a satellite which will be collectively used by the eight SAARC nations.

2.2 LAUNCH VEHICLE FLEET

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During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicle programme owing to
geopolitical and economic considerations. In the 1960s1970s, the country successfully
developed a sounding rockets programme, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the
Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
(ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure. ISRO further applied its
energies to the advancement of launch vehicle technology resulting in the creation of PSLV
and GSLV technologies.
2.3 SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (SLV)
The Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation SLV or SLV-3 was a 4-stage
solid-propellant light launcher. It was intended to reach a height of 500 km and carry a
payload of 40 kg.[18] Its first launch took place in 1979 with 2 more in each subsequent
year, and the final launch in 1983. Only two of its four test flights were successful.
2.3.1 AUGMENTED SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (ASLV)
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation PSLV, is
an expendable launch system developed to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing
(IRS) satellites into Sun synchronous orbits, a service that was, until the advent of the PSLV,
commercially viable only from Russia. PSLV can also launch small satellites
into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The reliability and versatility of the PSLV is proven
by the fact that it has launched 70 satellites / spacecraft ( 30 Indian and 40 Foreign
Satellites) into a variety of orbits so far. In April 2008, it successfully launched 10 satellites
at once, breaking a world record held by Russia.
On 30 June 2014, the PSLV flew its 25th consecutive successful launch mission, delivering
a payload of five foreign satellites into orbit. Its only failure in 26 flights was its maiden
voyage in September 1993, providing the rocket with a 96 percent success rate.
2.3.2 GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (GSLV)
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation GSLV, is
an expendable launch system developed to enable India to launch its INSAT-type satellites
into geostationary orbit and to make India less dependent on foreign rockets. At present, it is
ISRO's heaviest satellite launch vehicle and is capable of putting a total payload of up to 5
tons to Low Earth Orbit. The vehicle is built by India with the cryogenic engine purchased
from Russia while the ISRO develops its own engine programme.

10

In a setback for ISRO, the attempt to launch the GSLV, GSLV-F07 carrying GSAT-5P, failed
on 25 December 2010. The initial evaluation implies that loss of control for the strap-on
boosters caused the rocket to veer from its intended flight path, forcing a programmed
detonation. Sixty-four seconds into the first stage of flight, the rocket began to break up due
to the acute angle of attack. The body housing the 3rd stage, the cryogenic stage, incurred
structural damage, forcing the range safety team to initiate a programmed detonation of the
rocket.
On 5 January 2014, GSLV-D5 successfully launched GSAT-14 into intended orbit. This also
marked first successful flight using indigenous cryogenic engine, making India sixth country
in the world to have this technology.
2.3.3 GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE MARK-III
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III is a launch vehicle currently under
development by the Indian Space Research Organization. It is intended to launch heavy
satellites into geostationary orbit, and will allow India to become less dependent on foreign
rockets for heavy lifting. The rocket, though the technological successor to the GSLV,
however is not derived from its predecessor.
A GSLV III is planned to launch on a suborbital test flight in the third quarter of 2014/15.
This suborbital test flight will demonstrate the performance of the GSLV Mk.3 in the
atmosphere. This launch has been delayed from May, June, July and August of 2014.
2.4 EARTH OBSERVATION AND SATELLITE
India's first satellite, the Aryabhata, was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975
from Kapustin Yar using a Cosmos-3Mlaunch vehicle. This was followed by the Rohini
series of experimental satellites which were built and launched indigenously. At present,
ISRO operates a large number of earth observation satellites.
2.4.1 THE INSAT SERIES
INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites
launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and searchand-rescue needs of India. Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic
communication system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of
Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India

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Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests
with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee
2.4.2 THE IRS SERIES
Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of earth observation satellites, built,
launched and maintained by ISRO. The IRS series provides remote sensing services to the
country. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite system is the largest constellation of remote
sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world. All the satellites are placed
in polar Sun-synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal
resolutions to enable several programmes to be undertaken relevant to national development.
The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A,B, C, D) nomenclature. The later versions are
named based on their area of application including OceanSat, CartoSat, Resource
ISRO has also successfully launched the Indo-French satellite SARAL on 25 February
2013.12: SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and ALtiKa") is a cooperative altimetry
technology mission. It is being used for monitoring the oceans surface and sea-levels. AltiKa
will measure ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm, against 2.5 cm on
average using current-generation altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km.
In June 2014, ISRO launched French Earth Observation Satellite SPOT-7 (mass 714 kg)
along with Singapore's first nano satellite VELOX-I, Canada's satellite CAN-X5, Germany's
satellite AISAT, via the PSLV-C23 launch vehicle. It was ISRO's 4th commercial launch

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CHAPTER 3
ATMOSPHERE OF MARS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere of Mars is, like that of Venus, composed mostly
of carbon dioxide though far thinner. There has been renewed
interest in its composition since the detection of traces
of methane that may indicate life but may also be produced by
a geochemical process, volcanic or hydrothermal activity.

Figure 3.1: MARS atmosphere, visible on the horizon in this loworbit image
The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages
600 pascals (0.087 psi), about 0.6% of Earth's mean sea level
pressure of 101.3 kilopascals (14.69 psi) and only 0.0065% that
of Venus's 9.2 mega pascals (1,330 psi). It ranges from a low of
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30 pascals (0.0044 psi) on Olympus Mons's peak to over 1,155

pascals (0.1675 psi) in the depths of Hellas Planitia. This
pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected
human
body.
Mars's
atmospheric
mass
of
25 teratonnes compares to Earth's 5148 tera tonnes with a scale
height of about 11 kilometers (6.8 mi) versus Earth's 7
kilometers (4.3 mi).
The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96% carbon
dioxide,
2.1% argon,
1.9% nitrogen,
and
traces
of
free oxygen, carbon monoxide, water and methane, among other
gases, for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol. The atmosphere is
quite dusty, giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red
color when seen from the surface; data from the Mars
Exploration Rovers indicate that suspended dust particles within
the atmosphere are roughly 1.5 micro-meters across.
3.2 COMPOSITION
The composition of the abundant gases which are present on the
mars are shown in the figure 3.2

Figure 3.2:MARS most abundant gases

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CHAPTER 4
PAYLOAD

4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENTIFIC PAYLOAD

The 15 kg (33 lb) scientific payload consists of five instruments:
Atmospheric studies:

Lyman-Alpha Photometer (LAP) a photometer that measures the relative

abundance of deuterium andhydrogen from Lyman-alpha emissions in the upper
atmosphere. Measuring the deuterium/hydrogen ratio will allow an estimation of the
amount of water loss to outer space.
Methane Sensor for Mars (MSM) will measure methane in the atmosphere of
Mars, if any, and map its sources.

Particle environment studies:

Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition Analyser (MENCA) is a quadrupole mass

analyser capable of analysing the neutral composition of particles in the exosphere.

4.2 EXPLANATION OF VARIOUS INSTRUMENTS IN MARS ORBITER:

4.2.1 MARS COLOUR CAMERA (MCC)
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Mangalyaan carries a camera payload that acquires color images of planet Mars. MCC
covers a spectral range of 400 to 700 nanometers the visible spectrum. This tri-color Mars
color camera gives images & information about the surface features and composition of
Martian surface. They are useful to monitor the dynamic events and weather of Mars. MCC
will also be used for probing the two satellites of Mars-Phobos & Deimos. It also provides
the context information for other science payloads

Figure 4.1: Mars color camera on-board Mangalyaan

4.2.1.1 COMPONENTS OF MCC

Multi element lens assembly

Pixel array detector with RBG Bayer filter

4.2.1.2 MULTI-ELEMENT LENS

Multi element lenses are used when a singlet lens cannot fulfill the needed optical function
due to aberration or wave front distortion, or when more complex optical transformation is
required

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Figure 4.2: Multi element lens

4.2.1.3 PIXEL ARRAY DETECTOR WITH BAYER FILTER
The PAD detector is a 2-dimensional imager capable of storing subsequent frames in less
than 0.5 microsecond. It will be used for time resolved experiments where speed is a critical
factor

Figure 4.3: Color filter array 3D view

A Bayer filter mosaic is a color filter array (CFA) for arranging RGB color filters on a
square grid of photo sensors. Its particular arrangement of color filters is used in most
single-chip digital image sensors used in digital cameras, camcorders, and scanners to create
a color image. The filter pattern is 50% green, 25% red and 25% blue.

Figure 4.4: Working of CFA

4.2.2 METHANE SENSOR FOR MARS

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Methane is an organic molecule present in gaseous form in the Earths atmosphere. More
than 90% of Methane on our home planet is produced by living organisms. The recent
detection of plumes of Methane in the northern hemisphere of Mars is of great interest
because of its potential biological origin.

Figure 4.5: Methane sensor for MARS

Methane sensor for Mars is one of the scientific instruments of the payload on MOM
spacecraft, MSM payload weighing 2.94 kg is designed to measure amount of Methane of
the order of parts per billion (ppbs) in martian atmosphere. MSM is a differential radiometer
(radiometer is a device used to measure temperature of cosmic background) based on Fabry
Perot Etalon (FPE) filters. MSM maps the source and sinks of Methane by scanning the full
Martian disc from apogee position of Mars Orbiter.
4.2.2.1 DIFFERENTIAL MICROWAVE RADIOMETER

Figure 4.6: Differential microwave radiometer

4.2.2.2 SENSOR CONFIGURATION
Fabry-perot Etalon sensor consists of two channels - Methane channel, reference channel.
Fore-optics collects radiance from the sense and focuses it onto a field-Stop. Diverging
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beam from the field stop is collimated and then divided into two parts by a beam filter. One
part of the beam transmits through FPE filter of methane channel whereas the other part
transmits through FPE filter of reference channel and then focused onto respective focal
planes. In GaAS photo divider are used as photo detectors. In GaAs or indium gallium
arsenide is an alloy of gallium arsenide and indium arsenide. As gallium and indium belong
to Group III of the Periodic Table, and arsenic and phosphorous belong to Group V, these
binary materials and their alloys are all III-V compound semiconductors (In GaAS Photo
detectors are sensitive to wavelength over a wide spectral range and are available as image
sensors, and has applications in optoelectronic technology.)

Figure 4.7: Geological maps of MARS

4.2.2.2.1 FABRY-PEROT ETALON SENSOR OPTICAL CONFIGURATION

An FPE filter transmit optical radiation at regular intervals of frequency. FPE filter used in methane
channel and reference channels are exactly similar. But FPE filter of reference channel is tilted by
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about 1 degree with respect to the optical axis so that its transmission peaks are slightly shifted.
Transmission bands of first Etalon exactly coincide with the absorption lines of methane where as
transmission peaks of reference Etalon are positioned in between the gaseous absorption lines where
absorption is nil.

Figure 4.8: Functioning of fabry-perot etalon sensor

Figure 4.9: Working of FPE filter

TECHNIQUE USED TO DETERMINE CONCENTRATION OF METHANE:
Radiance measured in methane channel varies with Methane concentration in the
atmosphere where as that of reference level is insensitive to it. So, the differential signal
gives a Measure of methane in the atmosphere. Based on this technique, Methane
concentration on Martian atmosphere is determined.

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4.2.3 Lyman Alpha Photometer

Lyman Alpha Photometer (LAP) is one of the scientific instruments of the payload on MOM
spacecraft, which is Indias maiden mission to the red planet, Mars.

Figure 4.10: Lyman alpha photometer

Why is it called Lyman Alpha Photometer?
When electron in a hydrogen atom makes transition from n=2 energy level to n=1 energy
level, a photon is released and this type of emission of photon is known as Lyman Alpha
emission. Photometer is an instrument for measuring intensity of light. Lyman Alpha
Photometer is an absorption cell photometer.
4.2.3.1 LYMAN ALPHA EMISSION

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Figure 4.11: Lyman Alpha emission

What is an absorption cell photometer?

An absorption photometer for measuring the absorption by conducting the light to a thin
flow cell in which a liquid sample flows, wherein the sample light for measuring the
absorption peak is superimposed on the reference light selected from the
transparent(window) range of the liquid and the absorbance is detected by separating the
sample light and reference light after transmission of the flow cell changes in the light path
conditions can be mentioned accurately and therefore high accuracy measurement immune
to noises is made possible even using an elongated flow cell.
4.2.3.2 ABSORPTION CELL PHOTOMETER
LAP measures the relative abundance of deuterium and hydrogen from Lyman-alpha
emission in the Martian upper atmosphere .Measurement of D/H (Deuterium to Hydrogen
abundance ratio) will improve our understanding of the process involved in the loss of water
from the planet. The estimated D/H ratio will be used in MG CM (Mars General Circulation
Model) algorithms to the present Water escape rate from Martian Exosphere.

22

Figure 4.12: Absorption cell photometer a) atomic absorption meter b) mass spectrometer
.4.2.3.3 ESCAPE OF ATMOSPHERE ON MARS
In upper atmosphere hydrogen and deuterium atoms are produced by photo dissociation
from H2O and HDO molecules. In the escape of these atoms, the D/H ratio in the
atmosphere increases with time because escaping ratio of H atoms is expected to be greater
than that of D atoms because of the mass difference.

23

Figure 4.13: Escape of atmosphere on mars

LAP operates on the principle of resonant scattering and absorption at Lyman alpha
wavelengths of H and D i.e., 121.56 nm, 121.53 nm respectively. Thermally dissociated H2
and D2 molecules in the cells absorb the incoming H2/D2 Lyman alpha incident on the cell.
4.2.3.4 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF LAP
The fore-optics comprising of a plano-convex lens collects the input radiation and transmits
to the gas cells. Gas filled cells of the instrument works as an effective narrow band-pass
rejection filter at hydrogen and deuterium alpha wavelengths. Tungstun filament is used to
thermally dissociate the gases in to atoms. There atoms will resonantly absorb the incoming
hydrogen/deuterium lyman alpha radiation at their wavelengths. A 15 nm bandwidth lyman
alpha filter placed in the front of the detector cuts-off the undesirable radiation that lies
outside the wavelength range of interest and a solar-blind side-on type photo multiplier
tube(PMT) is selected for photon detection.
4.2.4 MARTIAN EXOSPHERIC NEUTRAL COMPOSITION ANALYSER
MENCA payload weighing 3.56 kg, is a quadrupole mass spectrometer based scientific
payload on MOM, capable of measuring relative abundances of neutral constituents, in the
mass range of

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Figure 4.14: Martian exospheric neutral composition

MENCA payload weighing 3.56 kg, is a quadrupole mass spectrometer based scientific
payload on MOM, capable of measuring relative abundances of neutral constituents, in the
mass range of 1-300 amu .The core objective of MENCA is to study the exospheric neutral
density and composition at altitudes as low as 372 kilometers above the Martian surface.
The instrument examines radial, diurnal and seasonal variations in the Martian exosphere
with Mangalyaan in its operational orbit, MENCA is to estimate the upper limits of the
neutral density distribution and composition around mars. Studying Martian exosphere will
provide valuable data on the present conditions.
Explanation on what happens in a mass spectrometer
Atoms can be deflected by magnetic fields-provided the atom is first turned into an ion.
Electrically charged particles are affected by a magnetic field although electrically neutral
ones arent. The atom is ionized by knocking one or more electrons off to give a positive
ion. This is true for things which you would normally expect to form negative ions(chlorine
for example) or never form ions at all( ex: argon). The ions are accelerated so that they all
have the same kinetic energy. The ions are then deflected by a magnetic field according to
their masses. The lighter they are, the more they are deflected. The more the ion is charged,
the more it gets deflected. The beam of ions passing through the machine is detected
electrically.

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. Figure 4.15: Mass spectrometer

4.2.4.1 Quadrupole rods
It consists of four parallel metal rods with opposing rods being connected electrically. A
radio frequency voltage is applied between the two pairs of rods and a direct current voltage
is applied between the two pairs of rods and a direct current voltage is then superimposed on
the RF voltage. Ions entering the instrument travel down the quadrupole between the rods.
Depending on their mass-to-charge ratio, ions either enter unstable trajectories and collide
with the rods or make it through to the detector (detectors being used in MENCA are
channel electron multiplier (CEM) and Faraday Cup (FC)

Figure 4.16: Quadrupole mass spectrometer

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4.2.4.2 Electron multiplier

The m/z of ions reaching the detector is a function of the voltage setting which allows the
operator to select an ion with a particular mass-to-charge ratio to measure its abundance or
run the instrument through a range of voltages to scan for a number of species that might be
present.
Ions are generated via electron ionization

Figure 4.17: Electron multiplier

Electrons are produced through thermionic emission. The electrons are accelerated in an
electric field and focused into a beam by a trap electrode. The atoms and molecules enter the
ion source perpendicular to the electron beam. As high-energy electrons pass by and collide
with the particles, large fluctuations in the electric field around the neutral molecules are
caused leading to ionization and fragmentation.

Figure 4.18: Working of electron multiplier

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The MENCA instrument operates at an m/z range of 1 to 300 amu (atomic mass unit) with a
mass resolution of 0.5u which allows detailed detection of species. The instrument can
operate at the low partial pressure found in the upper Martian atmosphere.
4.2.4.3 Additional instruments in MENCA payload
MENCA has an in-built pressure gauge for the measurement of total pressure. The
instrument has a provision to study the time-evolution of a set of selectable species in the
mode of operation. The primary science goal of MENCA is the in-situ measurement of
neutral composition and distribution of the martian upper atmosphere and exosphere and to
examine its radial, diurnal and possibly seasonal variations. The instrument has tele
command, telemetry and data interface to the space craft optical combination of operating
parameters which can be chosen through tele commands will be used to control the
instrument at different observation phases so that best possible scientific data could be
derived.
4.2.5 THERMAL INFRARED IMAGING SPECTROMETER
Mars is a terrestrial planet which means that its bulk composition, like Earth consists of
silicates, is metals and other elements that typically make up rock. Also like Earth, Mars is a
differentiated planet, meaning that it has a central core made up of metallic iron and nickel
surrounded by a less dense silicate mantle and crust. The planets distinctive red colour is
due to oxidation of iron on its surface.
The knowledge on type of minerals present in any planetary system provides the information
on the conditions under which minerals are formed and process by which they are
weathered. Much of what we know about the elemental composition of Mars comes from
orbiting spacecraft and landers. Most of these spacecraft carry spectrometers (A
spectrometer is an instrument used to measure properties of light over a specific portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum, typically used in spectroscopic analysis to identify materials)
and other instruments to measure the surface of mars.

Figure 4.19: Thermal Infrared Spectrometer payload on MOM

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Thermal Infrared Spectrometer is one of the five instruments on MOM. TIS weighing 3.2
kg can measure the thermal emissions and can be operated during both day and night.
Temperature and emissivity are the two basic physical parameters estimated from thermal
emission measurement. The TIS instrument measures thermal emissions from the Martian
surface to deduce surface composition and mineralogy.
4.2.5.1 Science goals of TIS

To estimate ground temperature of Mars surface.

To map surface composition and mineralogy of Mars.
To detect and study the variability of aerosol/dust in Martian atmosphere.
To detect hot spots, which indicate underground hydrothermal systems.

TIS will be useful in mapping mineral compositions and surface temperature during perigee
imaging (The perigee is the point in a satellite's elliptical path around the earth at which it is
closest to the center of the earth)and it will be used for assessment of global temperature
distribution and aerosol turbidity in Martian atmosphere during apogee viewing(apogee is
the point in the orbit of an artificial satellite most distant from the center of the earth).

Figure 4.20:3D Image of TIS

The TIS instrument consists of a spectrometer that features a typical infrared grating
spectrometer design. TIS consists of fore-optics, slit, collimating optics, grating and reimaging optics. A 120X160 element bolometer array is placed at the focal plane of the reimaging optics

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4.2.5.2 Fiber-port lens positions for collimating

Figure 4.21: Sketch of multi wavelength re-imaging optic

In the common design, radiation is directed through an entrance slit (available light energy
depends on light intensity of the source as well as the dimensions of the slit and acceptance
angle( acceptance angle refer to the angle in an optical fiber below which rays are guided
rays) of the system. The slit is placed at the effective focus of a collimator (A collimator is a
device that narrows a beam of particles or waves, which means either to cause the directions
of motion to become more aligned in a specific direction (i.e., collimated or parallel) or to
cause the spatial cross section of the beam to become smaller.) that directs collimated
radiation (focused at infinity) to a diffraction grating that acts as dispersive element. Another
mirror refocuses the dispersed radiation onto a detector.
TIS uses a 120 by 160 element bolometer array detector. A bolometer is a device for
measuring the power of incident electromagnetic radiation via the heating of a material with
a temperature-dependent electrical resistance
4.2.5.3 Principle of operation of a bolometer
Power P from an incident signal is absorbed by the bolometer and heats up a thermal mass
with heat capacity C and temperature T. The thermal mass is connected to a reservoir of
constant temperature through a link with thermal conductor.

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