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Lightning Physics
Professor Martin A. Uman, Fellow, IEEE
Chief Scientist, BOLT, Inc.
I. INTRODUCTION
Benjamin Franklin, more than 200 years ago, proved that lightning was an
electrical discharge and measured the sign of the cloud charge that
produced it. Modern research on the physics of lightning began in the early
20th century with the work of C.T.R. Wilson, the same scientist who
received the Nobel Prize for his invention of the cloud chamber. Wilson, by
making and analyzing remote measurements of thunderstorm electric fields,
was the first to infer the charge structure of the thundercloud and the
amount of charge involved in lightning. In the 1930's, lightning research was
motivated primarily by the need to reduce the effects of lightning on electric
power systems and by the desire to understand an important
meteorological process. The pace of that research was fairly steady until
the 1960s when there was renewed interest because of the generally
unexpected vulnerability of solid state electronics to damage from lightninginduced voltages and currents with the resultant hazard to both modern
ground-based and airborne systems.
II. SOURCES OF LIGHTNING
Most research on the electrical structure of clouds has focused on the
cumulonimbus, the familiar thundercloud or thunderstorm, because this
cloud type produces most of the lightning. There have been limited studies
of the electrical properties of other types of clouds such as stratus,
stratocumulus, cumulus, nimbostratus, altocumulus, altostratus, and cirrus
clouds that might potentially produce lightning.
The classic model for the charge structure of a thundercloud was developed
in the 1920's and 1930's from ground-based measurements of both
thundercloud electric fields and the electric field changes that are caused
when lightning occurs. In this model, the thundercloud forms a positive
electric dipole as shown in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2; that is, a primary
positive charge region is found above a primary negative charge region. By
the end of the 1930's, this overall structure had been verified from
measurements made with sounding balloons inside clouds and had also
identified a small localized region of positive charge at the base of the
cloud. Subsequent measurements of electric fields both inside and outside
the cloud have confirmed the general validity of this double-dipole structure.
However, in any given cloud the charge distribution can be more complex,
and there is often a negative screening layer above the primary positive
charge region.
ignition of forest fires) and because lightning in the clear air below the cloud
base is more easily studied with optical techniques. Cloud-to-cloud and
cloud-to-air discharges occur less frequently than either IC or CG lightning.
All discharges other than CG are often combined under the general term
cloud discharges.
Four different types of lightning between cloud and Earth have been
identified, the ways by which these are initiated being shown in Figure 1.1.
CG flashes initiated by downward-moving negatively-charged leaders
probably account for about 90% of the CG discharges worldwide (Figure
1.1, category 1), while less than 10% of lightning discharges are initiated by
a downward-moving positive leaders (category 3). Ground-to-cloud
discharges are also initiated by leaders of either polarity that move upward
from the Earth (categories 2 and 4). These upward-initiated flashes are
relatively rare and usually occur from mountain peaks and tall man-made
structures.
The number of cloud-to-ground flashes per square kilometer per year in the
U.S. has a maximum in Florida of 15 to 20, and a typical over-land value of
2 to 5. About 20 million CG flashes strike the continental United States
annually. Worldwide there are about 100 total (cloud and ground) flashes
per second for a worldwide average flash density of about 6 per square
kilometer per year.
IV. NEGATIVE CG LIGHTNING
A negative CG discharge (Figure 1.1, category 1) begins in the cloud and
effectively lowers some tens of Coulombs of negative charge to Earth. The
total discharge is termed a flash (as is the total discharge for other types of
lightning). Flash durations are typically about half a second. A flash has
several components, the most significant being three or four high-current
pulses called strokes. Each stroke lasts about a millisecond, and the
separation between strokes is typically several tens of milliseconds.
Lightning often appears to "flicker" because the human eye can just resolve
the individual pulses of luminosity that are produced by each stroke.
The sequence of luminous processes that are involved in a typical negative
CG flash is shown in Figure 1.2. The stepped leader initiates the first return
stroke after it propagates downward in a series of discrete steps. The
stepped leader is itself initiated by a preliminary breakdown within the
cloud, although there is no agreement about the exact form and location of
this process. High-speed photographs show that leader steps are typically 1
microsecond in duration, tens of meters in length and that the pause time
between steps is 20 to 50 microseconds. A fully developed stepped leader
can effectively lower 10 Coulombs or more of negative charge toward the
ground in tens of milliseconds. The average downward speed of
propagation is about 2105 meters/second. The average leader current is
between 100 and 1000 Amperes. The leader steps have peak pulse
been separated horizontally from the lower negative charge by wind shear,
but this may not always be a necessary condition. Positive flashes are the
majority of flashes to ground in winter thunderstorms (and snowstorms)
even though these storms produce few flashes overall, and they are
relatively rare in summer thunderstorms, only 1 to 15% of the flashes,
although storms with predominantly negative lightning often end with
positive discharges. The fraction of positive discharges in summer
thunderstorms apparently increases with increasing geographic latitude and
with increasing height of the local terrain; that is, the closer the cloud
charge is to the ground, the more probable is positive lightning, but again,
not enough is known about positive lightning to be able to say that this is
always a necessary condition.
VI. UPWARD LIGHTNING
The leaders in upward-initiated lightning are usually positive (Figure 1.1,
category 2). Positive upward leaders show a continuous luminosity that is
modulated in a fashion similar to positive downward-stepped leaders.
Negative upward leaders (category 4) exhibit a stepped behavior that is
similar to negative downward-stepped leaders.
Positive upward leaders often enter the cloud and produce only a more or
less continuous flow of current, of the order of 100 to 1000 Amperes, at
ground. In about half of the upward-initiated events, however, the
continuous current is followed by a sequence of dart leaders and return
strokes that are similar to those following first strokes in natural CG
discharges that are initiated by negative downward-moving leaders.
VII. CLOUD DISCHARGES
Cloud discharges can be subdivided into IC, intercloud, and cloud-to-air
flashes, but there are no experimental data at present to distinguish
between these three types. Indeed, on the basis of electric field records,
there is considerable similarity between these discharges. The term cloud
discharge could also be applied to those portions of a flash to ground that
take place within the cloud. In some cases, flashes that are primarily within
the cloud, and are best characterized as cloud flashes, produce a channel
to ground, seemingly as an unimportant byproduct.
Intracloud flashes typically occur between positive and negative charge
regions or represent discharges away from concentrated regions of positive
or negative charge and have total durations that are nearly the same as
ground flashes, about half a second. A typical cloud discharge effectively
moves tens of Coulombs of charge over a distance of 5 to 10 kilometers.
The discharge process is thought to consist of a breakdown phase followed
by a continuously propagating leader that generates weak return stroke-like
processes called recoil streamers when the leader contacts pockets of
space charge opposite to its own. The electric field changes that are
associated with recoil streamers are termed K-changes. K-changes are
when the steady presence of that conductor does not result in a spark
discharge.
A practical means of triggering a CG strike is to fire a rocket with a trailing
wire upward below a cloud when the ground electric field exceeds a
predetermined amplitude. This rocket-triggered lightning allows the flash to
be attached to an instrumented experiment: an experimental method of
fundamental importance in developing effective lightning protection
systems.
X. LIGHTNING DAMAGE, LIGHTNING AVOIDANCE, AND LIGHTNING
PROTECTION
In addition to being esthetically beautiful and scientifically fascinating,
lightning is a formidable natural event often causing costly damage to
businesses and tragic harm to people. Lightning damage is the subject of
the next menu item of this dropdown menu (About Lightning). When one is
faced with the possibility of a lightning hazard, two methods of protection
are available: 1) identify and avoid the hazard or 2) harden the threatened
systems to withstand the effects of nearby and direct strikes. Lightning
avoidance often appropriate for mobile or interruptible operations but
seldom appropriate or desirable for expensive fixed industrial facilities and
continuous operations is not explored in this website. However, links to
lightning identification companies and information can be found in the menu
item "General Lightning Links" of this dropdown menu. Hardening of the
systems (also commonly called lightning protection) and its economic
benefits to you are the subject of this website and the information is
presented left to right in the dropdown menus: About Lightning,
Conventional Protection, Modern Protection, BOLT Services, About BOLT,
and BOLT Contacts. Conventional Protection explores the capabilities and
limitations of the types of lightning protection that have been commonly
used to date. Modern Protection presents an emerging and dramatically
superior lightning protection method using "elemental Faraday cages." This
method provides fire protection comparable to conventional protection
methods and is the only method to protect satisfactorily the interior of struck
structures from lightning induced arcs that can cause explosions and/or
damage or disrupt electronic systems. BOLT is the only commercial
company providing this new and superior class of lightning protection, and
BOLT, its services, and their significant benefits to you are discussed in the
final three dropdown menus: BOLT Services, About BOLT, and BOLT
Contacts.
This material has been adapted from numerous of my publications (see
References in this menu item) for this website. These general references
contain extensive references to detailed original scientific publications
supporting this brief overview. (M.A.U.)
Lightning Damage
The total charge transferred (the integrated current) and the "action integral"
are important in causing heating and thus in causing fires and spalling. (The
action integral is the time integral of I2(t)R, where R = 1 ohm.) Both of these
measures are dominated by the low frequency components of lightning.
Typically, spalling results from the rapid conversion of moisture to steam.
The steam creates pressure, which fractures the material, causing rapid
and violent spalling.
As stated, the rapid current rise and peak current (the high frequency
components of lightning) result in high electric fields and subsequent arcing
in a building struck by lightning. To understand this effect, consider that
many buildings, particularly modern buildings, can be modeled as a series
resistor, R, and inductor, L (see Modern Protection). Given this simple
model, the voltage, V, between the floor and ceiling that results from the
current, I, is the following:
An upper bound for Vmax occurs when the current parameters from extreme
lightning are used. The maximum voltages and consequent electric fields
often exceed the breakdown strength of air; thus, arcs are generated. The
current parameters for the slower current decay and for continuing current
generate much lower maximum voltages and thus generate much lower
electric fields, which typically do not produce arcs, but can sustain the arcs
once started.
In summary, the dominant cause of fires and spalling is the low frequency
energy in the current decay and continuing current. The dominant cause of
over-voltage, high electric fields and arcing is the initial peak current and its
rise time; this region is very short in duration with high frequency energy
content. Remember these causes for lightning damage; they will be
revisited when we consider conventional lightning protection and modern
lightning protection in subsequent menu items.
In the US on average, lightning strikes to ground occur about 4 times per
square kilometer per year. Florida, the lightning capital of the US, has about
Half the forest fires are lightning caused, costing about $100 million
annually.
About 5% (~$1 billion) of annual insurance claims are lightning
related.
About 30% (~$1 billion) of annual power outages are caused by
lightning.
Over 100 thousand PCs (~$100 million) annually are destroyed or
damaged by lightning.
Gallery of Photographs