Biology

Chapter 16
Inheritance is the transfer of genetic information from generation to generation
Chromosomes a thread like structure made up of genes (genes are units of
inheritance made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) in that it codes for a specific
protein). They are found inside the nucleus and are only visible when a cell is
dividing.
Diploid nucleus a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (46
chromosomes) (from mother and father)
In division, first nucleus divides and then cytoplasm. There are two ways in which
nuclei divides:

Mitosis is the type of nuclear division that occurs during growth and
asexual reproduction. The daughter cells are genetically identical.
Meiosis occurs in sex organs to form gametes. The daughter cells are not
genetically identical.

Mitosis before cell divide, new copies of genetic information in the DNA of the
chromosomes must be made. Copying process occurs before nucleus divides. In
bone marrow stem cells continually divide through all life to produce RBC and
phagocytes
Mitosis occurs in following processes:

Growth it happens all over the body in animals, in plants it happens in

special growing areas.
Repair of wounds skin divides by mitosis
Replacement of cells that wear out and die, eg RBC
Asexual Reproduction occurs in fungi and plants, and its rare in animal
kingdom.

Meiosis it halves the number of chromosomes of egg cells and sperm cells to only
have 23 chromosomes. The zygote has 46 chromosomes, 23 from mother and 23
from father. In sexual reproduction the number of chromosomes stays constant from
generation to generation
Meiosis occurs in sex organs in human ovaries and testes. In flowering plants it
occurs in anther and ovules.

Chromosomes determine your gender. In females all 46 chromosomes can be

matched (they have two X chromosomes). In males there are two chromosomes
that are not alike (they have a X and Y chromosome)
A gene is a length of DNA that is the code for making a protein molecule, each
gene is located in the same place on one of the chromosome. Allele is a different
version of a gene. Most genes have many alleles. If an allele affects the appearance
of the individual it is called a dominant allele. If it is not, then it is called a
recessive allele.
Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism (Tt); the phenotype is all the
features of an organism other than its genotype (tall). A dominant allele is always
expressed in the phenotype. A recessive allele is only expressed when no dominant
allele present. A homozygous individual has two identical alleles of a gene and a
heterozygous individual has two different alleles of a gene.
Monohybrid Inheritance is the inheritance of a single characteristic, such as plant
height.
Codominance occurs when both alleles are expressed in the phenotype (both
dominant), as neither is dominant over the other. Example is the inheritance of ABO
blood groups.

Chapter 17
Variation means differences between species and within a species
There are two types of variation:

Continuous variation is influenced by genes and the environment resulting

in a range of phenotypes (quantitative can be measured)
Discontinuous variation is caused by genes alone and results in a limited
number of distinct phenotypes (qualitative cant be measured)

Identical twins are developed on the same embryo and are genetically identical. But
because they developed differently and were exposed to different environmental
factors, they have many differences
Mutation is a change of a gene or a chromosome that may cause a change in
phenotypic characteristics. Down syndrome is caused by a chromosome mutation. It
happens when two of the chromosomes do not separate properly, instead of the egg
having 23 chromosomes there is an extra chromosome, giving a total of 24.

Ultra-violet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays increase the mutation rate, the
greater the dose of radiation the greater the chance of mutation. Mutation can also
occur in body cell what may affect individual, like it can lead to cancer (cause can
be nuclear bomb)
Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disease caused by an allele in the gene for
haemoglobin.

Variation can be produced by sexual reproduction between two individuals. During

meiosis, the alleles of different genes are shuffled to give new combinations in the
gametes. During fertilization, when gametes fuse, alleles from the two different
individual are combined within the same nucleus. Gene mutation, meiosis and
fertilization give rise to variation between individuals in every generation.
When a lot of eggs or seeds are produced, population stays stable because many
are not able to survive. Either they are eaten, got diseased or just not able to grow
or produce.
There is a struggle for existence due to competition, predation and disease.
Competition can be among same individuals which is very fierce as they have same
structures and ways to get those resources. Also competition can be between
different individuals which are less fierce. Differential survival is a survival of
some individuals rather than others.
Only well adapted individuals survive to breed and pass on their genes to their
offspring. Natural selection will bring about a change to a species over time. Thus
selection is a mechanism by which evolution occurs.
Over time bacteria is now able to be resistant to previous antibiotics, by producing
an enzyme that break down antibiotic. The resistant bacteria survive to reproduce
and pass on a gene for resistance to their offspring. This is an example of natural
selection.
Domesticated plants have changed over time due to artificial selection. This
changes happened in following ways:
1. Humans chose features of an animal/plant to improve
2. Animals or plants showing these features are bred to produce the next
generation
3. The offspring are checked to find those that show an Improvement in the
desired features. They are kept for breeding in the next generation
4. This process of selective breeding continues for many generations
Artificial selection has produced new varieties of animals and plant with
increased economic importance. Examples are: high yielding crops, cattle that

produce more milk or better meat and sheep that produce more wool. The danger of
selective breeding is that there may be too much inbreeding between closely
related individuals. This may result in harmful recessive alleles being passed on to
the descendants and a reduction in variation.
Genetic engineering is the transfer of a gene from the DNA of one species to the
DNA of another. The human insulin gene can be transferred into a bacterial plasmid.
The bacteria grow to produce lots of human insulin

The gene that codes for the production of insulin is identified

Restriction endonuclease enzyme cuts the human DNA to remove the
gene from the rest of DNA
A circular piece of DNA (plasmid) is removed from bacterium
The same restriction endonuclease cuts open the plasmid
Human insulin-making gene is put into plasmid with the aid of another type of
enzyme called ligase
The plasmid is placed back into the bacterium
The bacterium is now has the gene to code for insulin
The bacteria multiply very rapidly inside an industrial fermenter and produce
insulin

Chapter 18
Habitat is a place where an organism lives. Population is a group of organism of
the same species living in the same habitat. All the populations of same species in
an area form a community. The community and all the physical factors that
influence it is called an ecosystem. Sunlight is the source of energy for all
organisms in almost all ecosystems.
Producers are the one that make their own food from simple raw materials, such
as carbon dioxide and water. They make energy available for all the other members
of the community. Consumers obtain the energy by eating other organisms, either
plants or animals or both. All animals are consumers. Herbivores are primary
consumers, while carnivores are secondary consumers. Decomposers are fungi
and bacteria that feed on dead and decaying material. Each of these feeding groups
is a trophic level.
Food chains show the flow of food and energy between different trophic levels in a
community. Food webs show the interconnecting food chains in a community.
Pyramid of numbers is used to show the area in each box where roughly number
of living organisms in each trophic level is shown. The problem of this structure is
that the size of an organisms what makes pyramid have unusual shape.

A pyramid of biomass is measuring the mass of living organisms what makes

pyramids correctly shaped and clear. Dry mass can be used for eg in plants to show
the useful biological materials in it such as fats, proteins and fats. Biomass can vary
with seasons
Energy Pyramids are the best way to show what is happening in the feeding
relationships of a community. These show energy transfer from one trophic level to
another. Only about 10% of energy passes from one trophic level to another due to
90% energy lost to waste and respiration. Therefore more energy is available in
foods for human consumption if we feed as primary consumers rather than
secondary, leading to the fact that vegetarian diet can support far more people than
the one that includes meat.
Most living matter is made up of 6 elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur which are essential for living things to make
proteins, carbs, fats and other organic materials.

Bacteria and faeces feed on dead or decaying matter (decomposers), as well as

waste of animals. They do so by breaking down carbs, fats and proteins into smaller
molecules that they absorb, moreover they respire whereby they need oxygen,
water and warm temperature for enzyme to work. Decomposers would release
carbon as carbon dioxide, and breaking down of amino acids would release
ammonia into the surrounding thus recycling carbon and nitrogen. Simple
compound would be absorbed by plants and turned into complex compounds which
later on are passed to animals. This is an example of nutrient cycle.
Carbon is very important as it is used to make carbs, proteins, fats and DNA and
other important biological molecules. Carbon comes from carbon dioxide which is
absorbed by plants to make food which will later be eaten by animals; carbon
dioxide gets into the air by following ways:

Plants and animals use some of their food for respiration, releasing carbon
dioxide
Decomposers use some of decaying materials for respiration, releasing
carbon dioxide
Burning of fossil fuels

Most of the nitrogen that plants absorb comes in the form of nitrate ions (NO 3-)
which is used to make amino acids, then animals eat plants and receive nitrogen in
the form of plant protein, nitrogen is then recycled by decomposers from dead
plants, animals matter and waste. (part of cycle dominated by decomposers)
Also decomposers break down dead remains and animal wastes releasing
ammonium ions into the soil, also bacteria break down urea in urine to form

ammonium ions (ammonification). Nitrifying bacteria in the soil change

ammonium ions into nitrate ions, these bacteria get energy from oxidation reaction.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in the soil, they convert nitrogen gas from the
air into compound of nitrogen that they use themselves, when they die and
decomposed this nitrogen will be available to the plants. These bacteria are also
found in the roots of legume plants like beans, peas and many tropical trees, they
are inside the swelling on the roots called root nodules. These bacteria change
nitrogen gas into ammonia that legume plant can use to make amino acids, while
the plant will provide stable environment for the plant. Denitrifying bacteria live
in water-logged soil, where they change nitrate ions to nitrogen gas, what balance
the uptake of nitrogen gas by nitrogen fixing bacteria. Lighting cause nitrogen and
oxygen react together at high temperature leading to formation of nitrogen oxides
which are washed into soils rainwater (leaching loss of plant nutrients from soils in
water that drains from the land)

Chapter 19
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same
habitat at the same time, therefore all individuals in a population may inbreed.
Factors such as birth and immigration increase population while emigration and
death decrease it
Sigmoid growth curve a curve that shows lag phase (doubling is very small as
cells are developing, usage of nutrients to make enzymes, DNA and cytoplasm),
exponential phase (cells are actively dividing leading to increase in population as
there are no limiting factors), stationary phase (when cells die at the same rate at
which they are produced, because of waste and shortage of food) and death phase
(when more cells die instead of being produced leading to population decline,
causes may include shortage of food and oxygen and buildup of toxins) in a living
organism
Factors affecting population:

Competition
Predation
Disease

For past 300 years human population has increased exponentially because:

Improved agriculture so people are better fed

Public health has improved, there are clean supply of water
Medical care has improve

This leaded to:

o
o
o

Decrease in the infant child and mortality rate

Decrease in death rate from starvation and malnutrition
Increase in life expectancy

Increase in the human population has social implications, such as demands on food
supplies, housing, energy needs and space to dispose of our rubbish.
Increasing in population has effect on following resources: fossil fuels, food
resources, land for agriculture and for housing, land and bodies of water for disposal
of waste.
Types of raw materials:

Renewable resource those that are replaced as fast as plants and animals
grow and reproduce
Nonrenewable resource resources that are used and cant be replaced

Natural ecosystem is used for harvesting food and disposal of waste leading to:

Ocean have been overfished

Toxic waste have been dumped into the oceans
Rivers are used for disposal of waste
Forests are felled for timber and for growing crops

Deforestation occurs because:

Timber is needed as building material

Paper for newsprint and other forms of paper and cardboard
Land for farms, cattle ranches and plantation
Land for roads, towns and factories
Firewood and charcoal as fuels

Deforestation leads to:

Soil erosion, formation of gullies and loss of plant nutrients

Local weather pattern change, with more frequent and severe storms
Frequent flooding as water runs off the land quicker
Loss of many habitats and extinction of species
Addition of carbon dioxide to atmosphere

Rainforests have no effect on maintaining the concentration of carbon dioxide and

oxygen in the forests, but forests and peat dogs in northern latitudes remove carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere.

Pollution harm done to the environment by the release of substances produced

by human activities
Certain atoms are unstable and the nuclei can break down releasing small particles
of rays, these atoms are radioactive.
Materials that can be broken down in the environment by decomposers are
biodegradable (eg some plastic have starch incorporated in them which is
digested by bacteria), while those that cant are non-biodegradable. Some
plastic can be recycled, where plastic would be melted and remolded, however they
produce toxic gases once burnt
Greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane) prevent some
heat energy escaping into space what keep the earth warm. Power stations,
factories, heating and use of fossil fuels release a huge amount of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere. Increase in methane is triggered by rise of rice
cultivation, cattle rearing, rotting material in landfill and extraction of oil and natural
gas. Consequences of global warming could be a rise in sea level, flooding, change
in worlds climate and reduction in crop production in some areas
Sulfur dioxide which is released when fossil fuels are burnt together with nitrogen
oxides from exhaust fumes cause acid rain. These gases can travel long distance
before being deposited as dry particles or dissolved in rain. Basically acid rain is
caused by oxidation and complex reaction with sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
Vegetation is affected by sulfur dioxide, some are very sensitive like lichens while
other can tolerate. Acid rain causes plant nutrients to become soluble and wash out
soil leaving them infertile also it causes release of aluminum ions that are toxic to
fish. Moreover acid rain damages leaves and kills trees, fish and invertebrates die if
lakes become acidic.
To combat acid rain following measures may be taken:

Low sulfur fuels crushed coal can be washed with solvent that dissolves
sulfur
Flue gas desulfurization treating the waste gases with wet powdered
limestone, neutralizing acidic gases before they escape
Catalytic converter fitted to reduce the nitrogen oxides in the exhaust
fumes

Rivers empty toxic waste from domestic and industrial pollutants into the sea:

Fertilisers and sewage encourage growth of algae that release toxins

Pesticides are concentrated in the tissue of some molluscs

Radioactive chemicals are found in higher concentrations around coastal
nuclear power station
Toxic metals, are found in tissues of marine organisms

Sewage it encourage the growth of algae and bacteria which use up a lot of
oxygen, killish fish and small invertebrates
Fertilisers drain from land into rivers and lakes. Eutrophication is the
enrichment of waters with plant nutrients from fertilisers that cause pollution and
stimulate growth of algae and plants:

Fertilisers can be washed through the soil into rivers and streams (leaching)
In water it stimulates population of algae
Animals that eat the algae do not multiply fast enough to control their growth
Algae cover the surface of water, reducing light reaching the water
Plants at the bottom die and rot
Algae also die due to competition for resources
Decomposers feed of dead plants and algae
Bacteria multiply and use a lot of oxygen
Concentration of oxygen decreases what kills fish and invertebrates

Insecticides are chemicals used to kill insect pests. DDT is a very effective
pesticide, which is used to control the mosquitoes and spread malaria, also it reduce
number of insects that eat food crops. However it is dangerous as it is not broken
down easily and therefore it can accumulate by organisms in food chains, what can
kill some species. Bioaccumulation is when pesticides are built up along the food
chain.
Biodiversity is a catalogue of all species in an area, country or even the whole
world. It also include different habitats.

We should conserve ecosystem, habitats and species for following reasons:

Ecosystems help to treat waste, providing food and fuels and giving us areas
for recreation
Ecosystems help to maintain the balance of life
Habitats support a wide variety of organisms
Other species have same right to leave on this planet as we do

No species lives in isolation, so we have to conserve ecosystems and habitats in

following ways:

National parks
Marine parks protect sea from damage and pollution

Rescuing endangered animals and breeding them in captivity and returning

to wild
Growing endangered plants in botanical gardens and re-establishing them in
wild
Reducing habitat destruction
Re-establishing of ecosystem where land become degraded
Prevented trade in endangered species
Encouraging sustainable management of ecosystem
Seed banks that are cold stores that conserve seeds of endangered or
valuable species

Rot sewage can be very hazardous as it may contain unpleasant materials,

therefore sewage must be treated in the following ways:

Primary Treatment removing large solids, like papers and twigs, by

means of filters or screens. Then grit and organic solids are allowed to settle
out in large tanks
Secondary treatment involves microbes, mainly bacteria, decamping
materials suspend in water, in either two ways:
Activated sludge process where air is pumped through the sewage
with community of bacteria, fungi and protists. Where they respire
aerobically and break down carbs, proteins and fats to carbon dioxide.
Hydrogen sulfide changed to sulfate ions and urea is broken down to
ammonia and converted to nitrate ions
Trickle filter beds of gravel covered with microbes. Liquid from
primary treatment is sprayed over these beds. As the liquid tickles
through gravel, the microbes break down the organic matter
Tertiary treatment settling period, liquid from secondary process is
passed into large tanks, where microbes and any remaining organic material
settle out to form sludge. Sludge can be used over again for secondary
treatment or to form methane which can be burnt to provide energy.

Glass, metals, paper and plastics can all be recycled. It saves raw materials,
money, energy and reduces pollution.