FINAL REPORT SKPU 1711

FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

2011/2012-SEM 2

EXPERIMENT 4

TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT

FLOW MEASUREMENT
DATE OF EXPERIMENT
27TH FEBRUARY 2012

LAB INSTRUCTOR
ASSOC. PROF. ABDUL RAZAK ISMAIL
SECTION 09
GROUP 4
NO
.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

TEAM MEMBERS

MATRIC NO.

MOHD SYUKUR ARIFF BIN MAIDIN

MOHD RAMZI BIN ABDUL RASID
MOHD AZLIN BIN CHE ALANG
FARS MAHMOUD HASSEN
RAMIN SHIRAZI FIROOZ

A11KP0053
A11KP0050
A11KP0060
A11KP4004

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents

Page

4.1
4.2

INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW/THEORY

4.3

METHODOLOGY

5
6
7
8
9

4.3.1 Apparatus
4.3.2 Experiment Procedures
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
APPENDICES

7
8
9
11
15
16
17

4.1 Introduction
A system generally is adapt from the Bernoulli principle. These experiment want to shows that
the pressure of the fluid will be decrease when the velocity of the fluid is rises gradually. For an
example when the fluid flows from the narrow spaces, the velocity of the fluid will be increase,

but the pressure is vice versa to it. In a nozzle or other constriction, the discharge
coefficient (also known as coefficient of discharge) is the ratio of the mass flow rate at the
discharge end of the nozzle to that of an ideal nozzle which expands an identical working
fluid from the same initial conditions to the same exit pressures

Objectives of this experiment wanted to showed students on how to determine and compared the
coefficient of discharge, Cd for a flow measurements device. For example orifice plate and
venturi meter.
These measurement is primary important to measure the rate flow of fluid in many system.
There are various of flow measuring devices, the one commonly used is being flows into
obstacle device. Such flow meters, are depends on the principle that changes in the static
pressure or dynamic pressure(pressure drop or head) can be related to the change in the crosssectional area of the flow. The relationship between flow rate and pressure difference can be
showed in Bernoulli equation, that is assuming changes in elevation, work and heat transfer are
negligible.
For an orifice plate, is a restriction with an opening smaller than the pipe diameter which inserted
in the pipe, the typical orifice plate has a concentric, sharp edge opening, as shown in the figure
below.

Because of the smaller area of the fluid, the velocity will be rises, causing a vise versa in the
pressure that will be decrease. Flow rate can be calculated from the measured pressure drop
across the orifice plate, P1-P3. The orifice plate commonly used flow sensor, but it creates a large
non-recoverable pressure due to the turbulence around the plate, leading to high energy
consumption.
Venture meter is similar to an orifice meter, but it is designed nearly eliminate boundary layer
separation, and then form a drag. The changes in cross-sectional area in venture tube causes a
pressure changes between the convergent section and the throat, and the flow rate can be
determined from the drop of pressure. Whenever it is more expensive than an orifice plate, the
venture tube introduce lower non-recoverable pressure drops.

4.2 Theory
Venturi meter
The Bernoulli equation can be applied to by referring point 1 and 2. The analysis for the equation
for flow rate can be derived:
4

2g

Qth= A V A
3 3
3

Qth
A1
A3

h1
h3

A
1- 3
A1

where:

h h
3

theoretical volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

cross sectional area at 1 (m2 )
cross sectional area at 3 (m2 )
height of manometer column 1 in meters (m )
height of manometer column 3 in meters (m )

The discharge coefficient defined as the ratio of the actual flow rate, Q act over theoretical flow
rate Qth : Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Qactual / Qtheoritical
Q act C Q
d th

2g h1 h3
2g
=C A
C A

d 3
d
3
2
2
A

A
3
3

1
1 A
A

1
and

Q act n h

...........where

n C A
d 3

h1 h3

2g
A
1- 3
A
1

This equation can be written as:

Log Qact = Log n + a Log h
To find the the n and hence Cd experimentally, using a graph Log Qact vs Log h

Orifice meter

For the orifice plate diagram, the Bernoulli equation can be applied at point 1 and 3. From the
analysis, the equations for flow rate can derived as:
Volumetric flow rate:
2g h
2
1- m

Qth = a

where:

Qth
a
m
h

theoretical volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

cross-sectional area of plate (m2 )
ratio of cross-sectional area of plate to pipe, (a/A)
difference in height of manometer column (m)

Discharge coefficient defined as the ratio of actual volume flow rate to theoretical volume flow
rate :
Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Qactual / Qtheoritical

Q act C Q
d th
2g h
C a
= C a
d 1 - m 2
d

and

aA

A2 - a 2

Q act C
d

2g
2
a
1-
A
2g h

...........where

4.3 Methodology

aA
meter coefficien t
2 2
A -a

4.3.1 Apparatus
The apparatus consists of manometer at in the middle of the water outflow level and the variable
head outlet tank. The orifice meter or the venturi meter is placed in between the both outflow
water level and the variable head outlet tank. Besides to the outlet pipe have outlet pipe that was
for control the water level in the variable head outlet tank. Water is supplied from the lab faucet
(supply valve) to the inlet of the apparatus via a hose. Water flowing through the nozzle strike the
flat plate and deflects from the flat plate and falls to the base of the clear Plexiglas tube where it
exit and drain in the sink.

FLOW MEASUREMENT APPARATUS

MANOMETER
VARIABLE HEAD OUTLET TANK
WATER OUTFLOW LEVEL

CONSTANT HEAD INLET TANK

OUTLET PIPE

WATER VOLUME INDICATOR

CONTROL VALVE
VENTURI/
ORIFICE METER

WATER RESERVOIR VALVE

PUMP SWITCH

Figure 4.3.1 orifice meter and venturi meter

4.3.2 Procedure

1. The apparatus was set up as shown in the figure. The outlet pipe variable head outlet tank
had to elevate. The pump then had to turn on until the water start to flow into the pipe at
the constant head inlet tank.
2. The flexible tubing to the manometer have to connect, then ensured that connection are
free from air bubbled or air pack in the flexible tube during the flowing of the water.
3. By adjusting the outlet pipe at the variable head outlet tank, we could determine the
height of water at variable head outlet tank. The height will be constant, so at that time
we have to record the pressure reading on the manometer. For orifice plate meter, we
have to take the H1, H2, and H3, H4. This is for D and D/2, upstream and downstream.
For venture meter, took the reading H1 and H2 only.
4. After the reading had taken, closed the water reservoir/sump valve to obtain flow rate
(Q), and when the volume attained at 2 liters, start the stopwatch until the volume of
water reached at 7 liters. The total volume of the water is 5 liters.
5. Next, used 3 different height of water for further reading. Follow step 3 and 4. Both
procedures can be performed simultaneously when the height of the water became
constant.
6. Finally closed the controlled valve during the completion and then turned off the pump
switch. Remembered did not to forget to clean all the apparatus that had been used, and
dry it.

4.4 Result
Table below show the data for venturi meter and orifice plate meter respectively.

Venturi meter
Volume Time
water
(second,s)
collected
(Litre)
5.0
30.07

H1
(mm)

H2
(mm)

498

342

0.156

(m)

Qtheo
(m3/s)
x 10-3

Qact
(m3/s)
x 10-3

Cd,theo

Log
h

Log
Qactual

0.14

0.17

1.21

-0.01

-3.77

5.0

24.75

488

264

0.224

0.17

0.20

1.18

-0.65

-3.70

5.0
5.0

22.06
20.13

454
452

178
90

0.276
0.362

0.19
0.22

0.23
0.25

1.21
1.14

-0.56
-0.44

-3.64
-3.60

D1 = 20.4 mm

D3 = 10.0 mm

Orifice plate meter

These orifice has two different method of pressure drop measurement cross the orifice plate.
i.
ii.

Upstream pressure point where the orifice plate equal to the diameter of the test pipe (D)
and downstream pressure is where its distance is equal to radius of pipe (D/2)
Both upstream and downstream pressure/tapping point at the corner are positioned
immediately perpendicular to the orifice plate.

D = 22.0 mm and D/2 = 12.0 mm

Pressure heads at D and D/2 tappings

Volume
water
collected
(litre)
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0

Time
(second,s
)

h1 @ D
(mm)

h2 @ D/2
(mm)

29
27
23
20

540
500
500
490

370
310
240
180

h
(m)
0.170
0.190
0.260
0.310

Qtheo
(m3/s)
x 10-3
0.093
0.098
0.115
0.126

Qact
(m3/s)
x 10-3
0.172
0.185
0.217
0.250

Cd,theo

1.849
1.888
1.887
1.984

Pressure heads at the upstream and downstream corners corner tappings

Volume
water
collected
(litre)
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0

Time
(second,s
)
29
27
23
20

h3 @ up- h4
stream
@down(mm)
stream
(mm)
505
290
495
290
490
280
470
280

h
(m)
0.215
0.205
0.210
0.190

Example of Calculation
a) Venturi Meter
For the first data,
i) Time

ii) Volume v

= 31.16 s
= 5 liter
= 0.005 m3

10

Qtheo
(m3/s)
x 10-3
0.105
0.102
0.103
0.098

Qact
(m3/s)
x 10-3
0.172
0.185
0.217
0.250

Cd,theo

1.638
1.814
2.107
2.551

= 0.005m3/31.16

iii) Qactual

= 0.1605x 10-3 m3/s

iv) H

= h1 - h2
= ( 497 -343 ) mm
= 0.154 m

v) Qtheo = 7.854x10-5 [ 2(9.81)( 0.410) (1-(7.854x10-5 /3.2685x104)2 ]

= 0.15663 x 10-3 m3/s

vi) Cd

= Q
Q

actual

theo

= 0.2073 x10 -3
0.72568 x 10 -3
= 0.2857
= log 0.2073 x 10-3

vii) log Qactual

= -0.6834

viii) log H

= log 0.410
= -0.3872

b)

Value for the next data also use the same method as above.

Orifice Plate Meter

Pressure Heads at D and D/2 tappings

11

For the first data,

i) Time

t = 84 s

ii) Volume v = 5 liter

= 0.005 m 3
= 0.005 m3

iii) Qactual

84 s
= 0.0595 x 10-3 m3/s
iv) H = h1 - h2
= ( 525 - 360 ) mm
= 0.165 m

v) Q theo

= 452.3893 [2(9.81) 0.165) (1-(452.3893/546.6321)]

= 0.4598 x 10 -3 m3/s
vi) Cd

= 0.0595 x 10-3
0.4598 x 10-3
= 0.1294

Value for the next data also use the same method as above.

Pressure Heads at the Upstream & Downstream Corners Corners Tappings

i) Qactual

= 0.0595 x 10-3 m3/s

12

ii) H = h3 - h4
= ( 526 -362 ) mm
= 0.164 m
iii) Qteori

= 452.3893 [2(9.81) 0.164) (1-(452.3893/546.6321)]

= 0.4584 x 10 -3 m3/s
iv) Cd = Qactual
Qtheo
= 0.0595 x 10-3
0.4584 x 10-3
= 0.1298

Value for the next data also use the same method as above.

13

4.5 Discussion

14

Graph Log Qactual versus Log (venturi meter)

-0.85

-0.8

-0.75

-0.7

-0.65

-0.6

-0.55

-0.5

-3.45
-0.45 -0.4

-3.5

-3.55

f(x) = 0.55x - 3.34

-3.6

Log Qactual

-3.65

-3.7

-3.75

-3.8

-3.85

Log

15

The graph

log Q actual versus log h

Log H + Log n, where n =

Cd A3

is plotted. By comparing this equation of Log Qact =

2g
A3 2
1( )
A1

with the graph plotted,

log Qactual

is

linearly increasing to log h and the graph obtained is a linear graph. This proved that the
graph plotted is correct. Next, the gradient from the equation is 0.5 while the gradient
obtained from the graph is 0.5461. The theoretical gradient value and the gradient value
obtained from the graph are slightly different. While the y-intercept obtained from the graph
is -3.3432. From y-intercept, we are able to calculate the value for

Log n

log C d A 3

-3.3432

= -3.3432

C d (7.854 x 105

= Log

log 7.854 x 105

2g
A 2
1( 3 )
A1

(
1

2 ( 9.81 )
7.854 x 105
3.269 x 104

2 ( 9.81 )

7.854 x 105
1
3.269 x 104

3.3432
Cd=

= 0.9672
Average

Cd

1.0247+ 1.0988+ 1.0565+1.0793

4

16

Cd

as below:

= 1.0648

However, the calculated

Cd

and average

Cd

values are slightly different. Thus, the

overall result that we obtained for venturi meter is incorrect. This is due to some errors made
while conducting the experiment and also errors that might come from the apparatus been
used in experiment. This will further discuss in question (v).

17

Graph Qactual versus (orifice meter)

0.25
Pressure heads at D and D/2 tappings
f(x) = 1.35x - 0.14

f(x) = 0.52x + 0.08

0.2

Linear (Pressure heads at D and D/2 tappings)

0.15

Qact
(m3/s)
x 10-3
0.1
Pressure heads at the upstream and downstream corners corner tappings

0.05

Linear (Pressure heads at the upstream and downstream corners corner tappings)

0
0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.2

(m)

18

0.22

0.24

0.26

0.28

The graph of Qact against h for method D and 1/D and method upstream and downstream is plotted.
Theoritically,

aA

A2 - a2

Q act C
d

2g h

aA
meter coefficien t
2 2
A -a

...........where

thus the graph can also be expressed as

aA

A2 - a 2

C
d

Qact =MX+c, m =

2g

For the D and 1/2D tappings method, the m=1.3539, therefore;

aA

A2 - a 2

C
d

2g
=1.3539

Cd

= 1.3539

= 1.3539

A 2a 2
aA

)
2

0.00038 0.0001
0.000380.0001 29.81

=1.081
For method D and 1/2D, the average coefficient discharged Cd is,
Average

Cd

1.7449+1.7228+1.7813+
3
=

= 1.750
For method upstream and downstream, the average coefficient discharged Cd is,
Average

Cd

1.3777+ 1.5856+1.7472
3

= 1.570
The value of both average coefficient discharged Cd for method D and 1/2D and
upstream and downstream is different to each other which are 1.750 and 1.570. The different
19

value is can be caused by some errors that done during the experiment such as the reading of
outlet pipe that is not perpendicular to our eyes. Other error is might be come from the apparatus.

Graph Cd versus Qtheoretical and Qactual flow rates for venturi&orifice

2
1.8

Qtheo(venturi)

1.6
Qact(venturi)

Qtheo(orifice-D1,D/2)

1.4
1.2

Cd, coefficient discharged

1
0.8

Qact(orifice-D1,D/2)

0.6
Qtheo(orifice-corner tappings)

Qact(orifice-corner tappings)

0.4
0.2
0
0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28

Qtheo & Qact, (x 10-3)m3/s

20

Based on the experimental results, venturi meter have more losses compared to orifice
meter. This venturi meter losses should be low due to steam line shape of the diffuser however our
experimental data deviate from the fact. From the observation, venturi meter have lower C d compared
to orifice meter. So, venturi gives less accurate measurement because its coefficient of discharge, C d
is lower compared to orifice meter.

Based on the experimental results, which flow meter gives more accurate measurement.
Briefly explain your choice.

Based on the result obtain from experiment, the most accurate flow meter reading is
venturi meter. Because the ratio of the actual flow rate / theoretical flow rate for average is
just marginally exceeding 1. This show that the reading data got during experiment is not
accurate data .Compared to orifice plate meter which is ratio is exceeded 1 by a large margin,
this show that there might be some errors when conducting the experiment as the actual flow
rate is so much different from theoretical flow rate.

Source of Errors and Limitations in the Experiment

Systematics error like error with the apparatus. The flexible tube have an air buble inside
it. Therefore, it will affect the reading of the height of the manometer.The surface of the
manometer ruler is not clear. It confius the reader want to read the scale. As a result, the reading
was not precise.Human error also one of the errors happen in the experiment. There is limitation
in the time response in human, the observer may not start and stop the stopwatch simultaneously
when the water level is reaching.
Recommendations
1. The parallax error can be reduced by putting a white paper behind the ruler to make the
water meniscus be seen more clearly

21

2. Before start the experiment, we have to ensure that the air bubble in the flexible tube
completely null. So it will gave the precise readings.
3. Make sure the scale of the ruler is in good condition. So the readers would get the precise
readings.
4. The rate of flow of water must be in a steady flow for a constant velocity at nozzle.
5. All the apparatus is made sure in good condition before the experiment start.
In order to obtain a more accurate result, some repetition while taking the reading can be
done and average value is calculated.

4.6 Conclusion
The objective of this experiment was to determine and compared the coefficient of
discharged, Cd for a series of flow measuring devices.

The following conclusions can be drawn from this experiment:

1- As it can be observed from the data obtained that, the logarithm value for Q actual is directly
proportional with the increasing logarithm value for h
2- The experimental slopes of graphs are seen to be deviate from the theoretical value Cd.
3- The coefficient discharged,C can be measured by the slope of the Q
versus h
d

actual

4- The height of the manometer reading will be effect the coefficient discharged, Cd
5- Qtheoritical is inversely proportional to coefficient discharge, C d. so the higher the Qtheoritical,
the lower the Cd.

However, this experiment involved with some errors which affect the accuracy of the
result, hence, a group suggested some recommendations to get more accuracy during handling
this experiment.

22

4.6 References
1. R. L. Daugherty and J. B. Franzini, Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill,
1965). pp. 338-349.

2. http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/orifice.htm

3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orifice_plate

1.

23

4.7 Appendices
1. Cross sectional area = radius
= x 0.012

= 3.14159 x 10-4 m2

2g h
2
1- m

Qth = a
2. Flow rate theoretical,

= (3.14159 x 10-4)

2 x 9.81 x 0.397
10.0256

= 8.8823 x 10-4 m3/s

3. Diffrences height, h = height 1, h1 height 2, h2
= 0.481 0.084
= 0.397 m
4. Coefficient discharged, Cd = Qactual / Qtheoritical
= 0.2222 / 0.2258
= 0.9841
5. Logarithm Qactual = Log Qact
= Log 0.2222
= -3.6532
6. Logarithm h

= Log h

= Log 0.397
= -0.4012

24