Geology: Significant Component of New

Multidisciplinary Sciences1
HATTEN S. YODER, JR.
Director Emeritus, Geophysical Laboratory
Carnegie Institution of Washington

HE FIELD OF GEOLOGY is undergoing major transformations as the science is being integrated into other fields. There
are so many exciting developments in the science itself that
only a few examples of new opportunities can be presented here; however, the trends in social issues (particularly environmental concerns),
education, funding, and governmental involvement are alarming and
are having even greater impact on the field of geology.
The bridging programs of geology with physics, chemistry, biology,
and mathematics have been formalized into the disciplines of geophysics (Frbel, 1834), geochemistry (Schnbein, 1838), geobiology (Folquer,
1939; Teilhard de Chardin, 1943), and geomath (Butler, 1941).2 (The
late Preston Cloud, member of the American Philosophical Society,
preferred the title Professor of Biogeology when he joined the faculty
of UCLA in 1965.) Even these fields have been integrated; biogeochemistry, for example, has incorporated the new disciplines in astrobiology,
biomineralogy, and pedogenesis (soil formation).
Geobiology
Astrobiology. The focus on astrobiology arose from the concern that
the anticipated returned samples from Mars will contain new life forms

1 Read

11 November 2000.
terms geomath or geomathematics (Rasmussen, 1952; Griffiths, 1966; Osborne,
1969; Merriam, 1978) have not gained wide recognition, whereas mathematical geology is
preferred (the International Association of Mathematical Geology was founded in 1968).
Computation and modeling permeate all phases of geology. Thermodynamic calculations
have served as a guide and extension of experimentation on the stability of rocks and minerals;
statistics aid in petrographic and geochemical ratio correlation; the analysis of seismic events
depends on wave mechanics; and the thermal history and dating of the earth require differential
equations. These are but a few examples where mathematical skills are mandatory.
2 The

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

[ 37 ]

VOL. 146, NO. 1, MARCH 2002

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hatten s. yoder, jr.

not represented in the paleontological fossil record. This concern led to

the need to understand how life originated on earth about 4.0 billion
years ago. Success has been achieved in synthesizing abiotically many
of the organic compounds in the citric acid cycle (Fig. 1) fundamental
to carbon-based life (Cody et al., 2000). The laboratory experiments
indicate that life may have been built from a few components that,
once combined, had the capacity for biochemical innovation and synthesis via several alternative pathways.
But the potential for life based on essential S, P, Fe, or Si as the primary structural element has not yet been thoroughly investigated. In
fact, there is no definitive set of criteria to distinguish a living organism
from an inert substance. All the usual criteria such as chirality, replication, metabolism, membrane formation, and evolution have been
tested and found operating in non-living materials. In short, the line,
if one exists, has yet to be drawn between living and non-living material. It is hoped that organic chemists and biologists can provide a list
of criteria to sort out the apparent continuum (Hazen, 2001).
Biomineralogy. The subdiscipline of biomineralogy arose from the

Figure 1. Citric acid cycle (Cody et al., 2000) illustrating one of the pathways
for generating energy in a living organism

geology and multidisciplinary sciences

39

realization that inorganic compounds in the human body are wellknown natural minerals in the earth (Skinner, 2000). Some twentyseven minerals in the human body have been described and analyzed
(Table 1). The solid solutions in hydroxyapatite, the principal calcium
phosphate mineral that constitutes bones, are pertinent to the
strength and flexibility of our limbs. The substitution of F for OH in
the mineral greatly increases the strength of bone; that is, fluoroapatite is a critical member of the solid solution. Most familiar is the efficacy of fluoride-bearing toothpaste that is clearly related to apatite
crystal chemistry. Abnormality in bone formation leads to Pagets
disease (high rate of formation) or rickets (low rate of formation).
The nucleation of hydroxyapatite in the organic matrix of collagen
(ossification) is a relatively new area of investigation (Connor, 1983)
involving both mineralogists and organic chemists. A particularly
fascinating set of bones in the ear called otoliths or ear stones are
attached to hair-like nerve fibers that respond to the action of gravity. The clusters of ear stones in four cavities help us maintain our
equilibrium.
Trace-element biogeochemistry. The trace element content of minerals in the human body is another area deserving of study, particularly
in relation to disease (Xia, 1996). For example, excesses of As, Be, Co,
Cr, and V in soils are listed as carcinogenic (Sensi et al., 1999). Trace
element toxicity has been related specifically to digestive, respiratory,
and reproductive functions (Xia, 1996). On the other hand, Se appears
to play a protective role in reducing cancer mortality, although an
excess of Zn or shortage of Mn may reduce the utilization of Se.
Worldwide studies are essential to establish how trace elements in soils
may influence public health.
Geochemistry
The geochemists could use help in visualizing the complex data set
involving the compositions of rocks. Some ten oxides make up 99.9
percent of the earths crust (Table 2A). These combine to make up the
inorganic compounds called minerals, the assemblages of which are
called rocks (Table 2B). By studying these compounds at various pressures and temperatures it is possible for the experimental petrologist to
outline under what conditions these mineral assemblages can be found
in the Earth. Apparatus now exists for investigating all the conditions
to the center of the Earth where T , 4500C and P , 3.5 Megabars
(Xu et al., 1986; Xu and Mao, 2000). By systematically determining
the physico-chemical relations in the binary systems of paired oxides
initially, it is possible to add additional components, thereby approach-

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hatten s. yoder, jr.

Table 1.
MINERALS IN HUMANS
Carbonates

Calcite
Aragonite
Vaterite
Monohydrocalcite

CaCO3
CaCO3.H2O

Phosphates
Hydroxyapatite
Fluoroapatite
Carbonate-apatite
Monetite
Brushite
Whitlockite
Newberryite
Struvite
Hannayite

Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
Ca5(PO4)3F
Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(F,OH)
CaHPO4
CaHPO4.2H2O
Ca8Mg(PO4)6
MgHPO4.3H2O
MgNH4PO4.6H2O
Mg2(NH4)2H4(PO4)4.8H2

Halite
Sylvite

NaCl
KCl

Gypsum
Hexahydrate
Epsomite

CaSO4.2H2O
MgSO4.6H2O
MgSO4.7H2O

Whewellite
Weddellite

CaC2O4.H2O
CaC2O4.2H2O

Magnetite
Maghemite
Periclase
Anatase

Fe3O4
g-Fe2O3
MgO
TiO2

Brucite

Mg(OH)2

Urea

CO(NH2)2

Quartz

SiO2

Chorides

Sulphates

Oxalates

Oxides

Hydrates
Organic
Silicates

MINERALS IN PHARMACEUTICALS AND DIAGNOSTICS

Kaolinite
Al4Si4O10(OH)8
Barite
BaSO4
Talc
Mg3(SiO3)4(OH)2
Borax
Na2B4O7.10H2O
Zincite
ZnO
Nahcolite
NaHCO3
Chalcanthite
CuSO4.5H2O

geology and multidisciplinary sciences

41

Table 2.

SiO2
Al2O3
CaO
FeO
MgO
Na2O

A. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CRUST

Average, Weight Per Cent
59.3
Fe2O3
15.9
K2O
7.2
TiO2
4.5
P2O5
4.0
MnO
3.0

2.5
2.4
0.9
0.2
0.1
100.0

B. ABUNDANCE OF ROCK TYPES IN CRUST

Volume Per Cent
Basalts
42.5
Gneisses
21.4
Granodiorites
11.2
Granites
10.4
Crystalline Schists
5.1
Clays and Shales
4.2
Carbonates
2.0
Sands
1.7
Marbles
0.9
Syenites
0.4
Dunites and Peridotites
0.2
100.0

ing the ten-component natural system, the rocks themselves. Most of

the 45 binary oxide systems have been done, and a large number of the
potential 120 ternary systems are determined, but only a dozen of the
210 quaternary systems have been attempted. Several examples of the
types of systems investigated are illustrated in Figure 2. The purpose in
presenting these detailed diagrams is to document the method of
approach in establishing how various igneous rock types, that is, those
crystallized from a liquid (magma), are related to each other. A large
amount of labor is required to establish these relationships, but the
temperatures observed closely approximate those observed when similar natural rocks themselves are melted and crystallized. All of the diagrams were determined at one atmosphere, and the principal task
underway is to examine each diagram at a series of pressures to establish the changes in minerals and their assemblages with depth in the
Earth.3 The logical and systematic investigation of igneous rocks in this
3 The phase changes with depth in crustal rocks are usually studied at pressures of 1, 2, 5,
and 10 kb, whereas those changes in the mantle are customarily investigated at 20, 40 and
100 kb.

42

hatten s. yoder, jr.

Figure 2A. The binary system SiO2-Al2O3 at one atmosphere (Bowen and
Greig, 1924; Shears and Archibald, 1954)

Figure 2B. The ternary system CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 at one atmosphere (Rankin

and Wright, 1915; Osborn and Muan, 1960)

Cristobalite
Tridymite
Pseudowollastonite
Rankinite
Lime

SiO2

Corundum

Al2O3

CaO?SiO2
3CaO?2SiO2
CaO

Mullite
Anorthite
Gehlenite

3Al2O3?2SiO2
CaO?Al2O3?2SiO2
2CaO?Al2O3?SiO2

geology and multidisciplinary sciences

43

Figure 2C. The ternary system MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 at one atmosphere (Rankin

and Merwin, 1918; Keith and Schairer, 1952)

Figure 2D. The quaternary system CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 at one atmosphere

illustrating the phase assemblages stable below the liquidus surface (Rait, 1949)
C 5 CaO, M 5 MgO, A 5 Al2O3, S 5 SiO2

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hatten s. yoder, jr.

Figure 2E. The quaternary system CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 at one atmosphere

for the 10% MgO plane (Prince, 1954)
Temperatures of quaternary piercing points; 65C: A 5 1230; B 5 1245; C 5
1330; D 5 1235; E 5 1250; F 5 1345; G 5 1370; H 5 1485; J 5 1425; K 5
1410; L 5 1410.

Figure 2F. A portion of the quinary system Na2O-CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 at

one atmosphere: the plane Diopside-Nepheline-Silica (Schairer and Yoder, 1960)

geology and multidisciplinary sciences

45

way has been one of the great successes in geological research in the
last century.4
The most abundant oxides in the Earths crust are SiO2 and Al2O3.
Figure 2A gives their binary behavior as a function of temperature. In
Figure 2B, CaO has been added to form a ternary system. Its study was
particularly rewarding because it led to an understanding of many
ceramics, and of slag formation in steel making. Another ternary (Fig.
2C) containing MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 is critical to understanding many
basic igneous and metamorphic rocks. To illustrate a four-component
system, the last two ternary diagrams are combined into CaO-MgOAl2O3-SiO2, but only the tie lines of coexisting phases are illustrated
(Fig. 2D). Each of these binary joins and subsidiary ternary diagrams
has been studied. Another way to approach a four-component system
is to take slices at various intervals. One investigator chose a slice at 10
percent MgO, an amount commonly determined in natural rocks, to
investigate the influence of MgO on the system (Fig. 2E). To get at fivecomponent systems, it is customary to combine oxides that form the
end-members of real minerals as the components. The oxides CaO and
MgO are added to SiO2 to form the significant pyroxene end-member
diopside (CaMgSi2O6), and the oxides Na2O and Al2O3 are added to
SiO2 to form the critical mineral nepheline (NaAlSiO4) (Fig. 2F). The
five-component system in Figure 3 is particularly relevant to the
basalts, the most common rock type on the surface of the Earth. A few
attempts have been made to understand a quinary system by projecting
one of the components onto the quaternary system (Fig. 4).
You can see the dilemma of the petrologist: how does one visualize
the even more complex naturally-occurring mineral systems that make
up the rocks observed in the field? Matrices have been applied (Presnall,
1986), but the translation of the matrix into the defining boundary
curves, reaction curves, and eutectics of the phase equilibria system has
not as yet provided a rigorous understanding and appreciation of the
phase relations. Perhaps some of you can give guidance to supplement
the linear algebraic method of representing visually a mineral or a rock
in the natural ten-component system for the Earth.
Social Issues
A plethora of socially oriented issues involves the environment, hazards, resources, climatology, archeology, and agriculture. Concern for
4 The systematic investigation of these systems was undertaken initially at the U.S.
Geological Survey in 1880 and transferred to the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington after its establishment in 1905. Most of the high-temperature and
high-pressure research has since been carried out there (Yoder, 1994).

46

hatten s. yoder, jr.

Figure 3. A portion of the quinary system Na2O-CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO at one

atmosphere relevant to the principal minerals in basalt (Yoder and Tilley, 1962)

Figure 4. Projection of a quinary system wherein H2O is projected on to the

anhydrous quinary system K2O-CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2. The tetrahedron is the potassium analogue of the extended normative basalt tetrahedron (Yoder, 1990). The
joins displayed were determined experimentally at 950C with PH 2O 5 2 kbar.
Phlogopite (Ph) contains H2O; Tremolite (Tr) and Mg-Celadonite (Mg-Cel) are
also hydrous but unstable under the P-T conditions investigated.
Ak
Di
En
Fo

akermanite
diopside
enstatite
forsterite

K-mel
Ks
La
Lc

potassium melilite
kalsilite
larnite
leucite

Mo
Sa
Qz
Wo

monticellite
sanidine
quartz
wollastonite

geology and multidisciplinary sciences

47

these problems has had a dramatic effect on the field of geology. The
most persistent concerns are related to the environment.
Environment. To accommodate the demands of the job market,
some universities have abandoned traditional courses in the field of
geology and substituted courses on the environment. Unfortunately,
that subject is being taught without the substantive geophysics, geochemistry, geomathematics, and geobiology courses needed for a
meaningful understanding of the problem. For example, only a few
geology departments teach fluid dynamics, that is, fluid flow and mass
transport in porous media. Sophisticated computer codes in fluid
dynamics are now available to account even for the heterogeneity of
natural rock formations, and have been successfully applied to oil and
gas reservoirs. These same codes can be applied as well to the flow of
contaminants in water reservoirs, chemical spills, radioactive waste
storage leaks, and effluents from industrial plants. It is obvious that
those problems require knowledge of the entire range of interdisciplinary sciences.
Everyone is well aware of the growing world population, which is
now more than six billion, the need for raising the standard of living of
the developing nations, and the demands of new technologies. We are
asked to achieve these goals, without impacting the environment! A
reasonable compromise will have to be devised to minimize the environmental effects arising from the advance of civilization. Incidentally,
environmentalists can take note of a new process being studied at the
Los Alamos National Laboratory, which reduces emissions from the
burning of coal to almost zero without significant reduction of energy
yield (Lackner, 2000).
Resources. The economies of the world are wholly dependent on
minerals, yet there is little appreciation that these resources are not
renewable and are not infinite (Yoder, 1982). The U.S. already imports
more than 70 percent of its annual requirements of each of about two
dozen major elements of minerals. As lower grades are mined, larger
volumes will be removed (Fig. 5); the problem is to find ways to process low-grade ores using the least amount of energy. The impact of
mining on the environment, condemned by many in spite of reclamation, is still less than the impact of a coast-to-coast federal superhighway! The relative values of mineral resources vs. transport accessibility
vs. farm land vs. natural preservation have yet to be weighed. At
present rates of consumption, it is estimated that all reserves of antimony will run out in twenty-six years, followed by tin, sulfur, bismuth,
and zinc in ninety years (Table 3, Steady State Life Column). These
numbers will be cut in half if the production is increased only 2 percent
in accord with population growth. These are indeed critical and strate-

48

hatten s. yoder, jr.

Figure 5. An estimate of the variation of grade of ore with amount. The

Gaussian curve is based on incomplete data on essentially two elements, uranium
and gold.

gic elements, yet Congress has voted to sell off our stockpiles! According to the Stockpile Report to the CongressFiscal Year 1999
(Oliver, 2000), the National Defense Stockpile has sold almost a half
billion dollars worth of materials and has neither acquired nor
upgraded any of the commodities annually since 1995. Recycling, substitutes, reductions in demand, and new technologies are not going to
resolve the ultimate consequences of the accelerated use of non-renewable resources.5
The problem is not only being ignored, but further exacerbated by
the closing of the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1995. The U.S. Geological
Survey was assigned the Bureaus responsibilities of assembling the statistics on mineral commodities, but has closed down its own basic
research programs on ore deposits. A geochemical census, strongly
advocated by the U.S. Geological Survey, has not been supported as it

5 Recognition of this looming catastrophe is not new. Almost fifty years ago the policy
report Resources for Freedom, the Paley Report (1952), was published expressing concern
that the rate of consumption of minerals surpassed the discovery of new deposits. The future
security of the nation was in jeopardy in the view of the commissioned study. Some twentyfive years ago a presentation was sponsored by the American Geological Institute at the
White House in which the prospects of mineral shortages were again spelled out. Next came
the Club of Rome (Meadows et al., 1972) conclusion that population growth and
consumption of resources would produce profound changes in our lifestyle by the middle of
this century. A few years later the Dahlem Workshop (McLaren and Skinner, 1987) projected
increased costs of minerals and increased usage of minerals would lead to changing patterns
in at least fifty years. All these warnings have been ignored and the principal issues of debate
are now on the environmental impact of mining and the sustainability of the present way of
life for future generations.

geology and multidisciplinary sciences

49

Table 3. Comparison of 1997 world production and reserve base for new
material added to the economy.3

Abundant Commodities
Iron
Sulfur
Aluminum
Potassium
Silicon
Magnesium
Bromine
Scarce Commodities
Phosphorous
Copper
Zinc
Manganese
Chromium
Lead
Titanium
Nickel
Tin
Molybdenum
Antimony
Vanadium
Tungsten
Cobalt
Silver
Bismuth
Mercury
Gold

1997
World
Production

World
Reserve Base

SteadyState Life

550,000
54,000
23,000
20,000
3,200
3,000
470

110,000,000
3,500,000
5,600,000
14,000,000
immense
immense
immense

200 yr.
65
240
700

18,000
11,000
7,800
7,500
3,600
2,900
2,400
1,100
200
130
124
35
32
27
15
3.5
3.0
2.3

4,300,000
1,500,0002
710,0002
11,000,000
2,300,000
350,0002
360,000
140,000
12,000
12,000
3,600
27,000
3,300
9,000
1,7002
260
240
1902

240 yr.
140
91
670
640
120
150
130
60
92
29
770
100
330
110
74
80
83

% in
Average
Rock1
4.8
0.026
8.3
2.09
28
2.33
0.00025
0.12
0.0050
0.0081
0.10
0.0077
0.0013
0.53
0.0061
0.00016
0.00011
0.000045
0.012
0.00012
0.0018
0.0000065
0.00000029
0.000008
0.00000035

All production and reserve base data are in thousands of metric tons of the pure element and are rounded to two
significant figures. Neither recycled scrap nor stockpile contributions are included here.
1 Data for average continental crust from Lee and Yao (1970). Some abundant rock types may contain 10 to
100, or even more, times more than the average for some elements.
2 Data from Singer (1995) for World Discovered Resources.
3 Barton (2000).

has been in South Africa. Only 53 percent of the U.S. has been mapped
geologically at a scale of 1 inch 5 4 miles, a scale not adequate for the
discovery of high-grade element concentrations. Furthermore, plans
for three-dimensional mapping by drilling have been made but not
implemented. The oil companies were briefly fascinated with the mining business. More than half of all domestic copper companies are
in the hands of oil companies. On the other hand, they have closed
the research laboratories of the companies they absorbed (Atlantic-

50

hatten s. yoder, jr.

Richfield owns Anaconda; Pennzoil, Duval; and Sohio, Kennecott).

Even DuPont, an institution proud of its basic research initiatives,
reduced the mineral research facilities of Conoco after the takeover.
Failing to capitalize on their aggressive research talents, the oil companies have not exploited the demonstrated close correlation of some
metals with organic matter. One encouraging technique recently being
applied, however, is the use of bacteria in separating metals from mine
waste dumps. Man is presently dispersing gallium further by burning a
major source, coal; the gallium-bearing fly ash is spread over the countryside so that it is no longer economically recoverable for making the
new GaAs transistor chips.
Transfer of the environmental problem to other mineral-rich countries by importing our needs is a short-term solution. The State
Department has unfortunately terminated its cadre of mineral resource
reporting officers in U.S. embassies, so there is no one with the appropriate scientific background to keep the U.S. informed on mineral
resource availability or new sources. Furthermore, we no longer have
any trade agreements that will guarantee the delivery of the large number of mineral resources we import at an increasing rate.
The training of scientists in mineral deposits has been greatly
reduced in the U.S. Of the approximately eight hundred departments
of geology in the U.S. (Claudy, 1999), only twenty-four have programs
in economic geology. The number of currently accredited mining or
mineral engineering schools has been reduced to half of the approximately forty schools producing mining engineers prior to World War
II. Two of our Ivy League schools have gone so far as to eliminate the
basic courses in mineralogy and petrology. Without knowing the properties of rocks and minerals, how can one understand earth processes
or develop advanced processing techniques?
To the best of my knowledge, no major effort is being made in the
principal mineral-producing countries of the world to carry out basic
research in ore deposits. In addition, we are not developing the alternatives to oil, for example, by setting up pilot plants in the U.S. where
improvements in the various processes could be developed. Two noteworthy exceptions in foreign countries are the extraction of gasoline
from coal in South Africa and the production of oil from tar sands in
Canada. We should have pilot plants for all the alternatives to see
which is the most economic when shortages arise. It is debatable
whether pilot or demonstration plants are the responsibility of the federal government or industry.
This state of affairs exists not only in a wide range of resource minerals, but also in the most critical resource of allfresh water. At
present the aquifers in the plains of the U.S. are being mined at a

geology and multidisciplinary sciences

51

rate that exceeds the recharge rate. Attempts to capture the natural
supplies have resulted in antagonism between those who believe dams
on the rivers are the solution and those who object to their effect on
the ecological evolution of the environment. There are about seventyfive thousand dams in the U.S., of which two hundred have been dismantled, and only a few thousand are being considered for removal
because of the sediment release problem. Some 60 percent of the
worlds largest 227 rivers have been dammed, diverted, or channelized,
and half of the worlds wet lands have been lost during the twentieth
century (Revenga et al., 2000). Alternative solutions require energy,
already in short supply. Water quality is indeed at the forefront of
worldwide concerns. According to UNESCO, more than one billion
people do not have access to clean and drinkable water (Matsuura,
2000).
In brief, a national plan to reduce the conflicts that will eventually
emerge in the struggle to acquire the limited accessible resources of the
world should include the following steps:
1. Fulfill the goals of the strategic and critical mineral stockpiles,
public and private, as soon as possible, by exchange, barter, or
private investment, and maintain them as needs change.
2. Insure that the Emergency Mobilization Preparedness Board
has contingency plans for meeting material shortages from
alternative sources, through substitution, recycling, conservation, and technological redesign, and by elimination of nonessential uses.
3. Ascertain the reasons for the demise of the mining industry in
the U.S. and take the necessary actions to sustain at least a
readily expandable and steady domestic mining industry.
4. Encourage each state to undertake an assessment of elements
in surficial natural materials and at depth through drilling
with appropriate sampling techniques.
5. Expand data-collecting agencies concerned with the mineral
production of the world and post professional mineral attachs
in principal supply nations.
6. Maintain and provide for continual economic evaluation of
pilot plants for the development of alternative recovery methods
of strategic elements from unconventional source minerals.
7. Organize a consortium of agencies for mapping the oceanic
areas of the Exclusive Economic Zone, and accelerate the geological mapping of the continental U.S. by expanding the U.S.
and state geological surveys.
8. Develop a prime-minerals, land-use policy, setting aside lands

52

hatten s. yoder, jr.

specifically for future mineral development as the major land
use.
9. Establish a national laboratory for basic research in the principles of element concentration at least equal in scope to those
for the investigation of nuclear energy!
10. Formulate plans for educating a new generation of interdisciplinary scientists capable of analyzing the complex (scientific,
economic, and political) resource problems.

Hazards. Mitigating the violent natural hazards resulting from

floods, landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and climate change
involves highly debatable tradeoffs. For example, the technique of
hydrofracturing (Table 4) an oil well to provide cracks for oil accumulation can also be used to relieve the stress in a fractured region prone
to earthquakes. The legal profession would no doubt have a field day if
relieving the stress triggered a major earthquake. The same technique
has also been used to fracture hot rocks, making them accessible to
water pumped in to extract heat for geothermal power generation.
That experiment in heat mining at the Los Alamos National Laboratory was terminated, though it had been highly successful in energy
extraction, because of waning interest in geothermal energy in the U.S.
The next step in that study, for which funding was denied, was using
the water as a solvent on the rocks to extract metalsthe environmentally compatible concept of chemical mining. There is no shortage of
valuable investigations that would be socially relevant if the basic science were developed.
Probability and risk of natural hazards constitute a relatively
underdeveloped area of study. Attempts to forecast a volcanic eruption
by observing the rise in temperature of associated hot springs or the
change in the chemistry of the water, following the rise of magma by
microseisms, and the dilation of the surface with precise leveling and
strain metering, have achieved some success. Some thirty-five years ago
(Yoder, 1965, p. 89), it was suggested that a major eruption, possibly
of Mount Rainier and Lassen Peak, would occur in the west coast
range of the U.S. in our lifetime. This widely publicized prediction,

Table 4. Applications of hydrofract technique

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Oil accumulation and transfer

Stress relief of earthquake-prone fracture zones
Water accessibility in hot rocks for power generation
Chemical mining with solvents
Relief of explosive volcanic reservoirs

geology and multidisciplinary sciences

53

confirmed by the eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 (Tilling, 1987),

was based partly on experimental work on explosive volcanism in
which water was the propellant, but also on the historical record and
the geological evidence that many of the existing volcanoes on the
West Coast are dormant, not dead.
Funding. Funding for the study of specific socially relevant problems is being administered by individuals, committees, and organizations that have little scientific background. They expect the delivery of
a predetermined productnot the results of innovative and imaginative research. The funding, economically driven, is directing the applied
research. As a result, the basic geologic knowledge required for understanding the problem is left to the scientist willing to divert some of
the funds to study the fundamentals. One would hope that all future
contracts, especially those with industrial partnerships, will have 1025
percent of the funds earmarked for basic research. In this way the
nation would be assured that decisions reached for mitigating natural
hazards, extension of resource depletion, energy replenishment, and
continuation of a water supply of appropriate quality would be based
on sound scientific knowledge.
Conclusions
Geology is, therefore, helping to solve socially relevant problems
through integration with individual basic sciences. In spite of the great
advantages of applying a systems approach to earth science problems,
geology has lost ground in developing its own scientific base. Current
research funding priorities fail to emphasize the investigation of the
fundamental concepts specific to the unique and complex relationships
characteristic of the Earth. The progress of geology in the new millennium requires expansion of the education of geologists to include the
interdisciplinary fields; allotment of some portion of the funding for
applied research to basic research devoted to principles; and recognition that field problems, themselves requiring more detailed observations, are also amenable to study with the new array of experimental
tools capable of reproducing the wide range of conditions in the entire
Earth.
Acknowledgments
Professors Claudio Vita-Finzi and Luna Leopold are thanked for the opportunity to present some views on the symposium theme How we see the Earth in
a.d. 2000. Although the subject matter of the assigned title for the introductory talk on The Constituents of the Earth was included, liberty was taken
in reviewing more general trends in the field of geology in the new millennium.

54

hatten s. yoder, jr.

Critical reviews of the manuscript were kindly provided by Drs. Wesley

Huntress, Robert Hazen, Neil Irvine, and Douglas Rumble, but no endorsement of the views presented should be implied.

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