Presented by

Balaji.S,
Sr. Engg. Manager,
L&T, Construction,
EDRC, Chennai

Science and Technology

There is a fundamental difference between science and
technology.
Engineering or technology is the making of things that did not
previously exist, whereas science is the discovering of things
that have long existed.
Technological results are forms that exist only because
people want to make them, whereas scientific results are
information of what exists independently of human intentions.
Technology deals with the artificial, science with the natural.
(Billington 1985)

Architectural design must respect various constraints:

Functionality: Influence of the adopted structure on the
purposes for which the structure was erected.
Aesthetics: The architect often imposes his aesthetic
concerns on the engineer. This in turn can place severe
limitations on the structural system.
Economy: It should be kept in mind that the two largest
components of a structure are labours and materials. Design
cost is comparatively negligible.

Contents
1. Definition
2. Introduction
3. Historical Facts
4. Material
5. Structural System
6. Iconic Structures

Ordinary
systems
XYZ

One-way
spanning
X >> Y & Z

Two-way spanning
X Y >> Z

High-rise
Z >> X & Y

Architects/Engineers have been challenged to cover the

largest space possible without any obstructions for
centuries

started in the 19th century with the advent of the

railways, which generated the need for long span
enclosures

The development of these buildings has closely

followed technological progress at a time when the
technology of cast iron structures was sufficiently
advanced to be able to provide large span enclosure.

Contd

Contd
Progress from cast iron to wrought iron, then steel in
quick succession provided the means to build longer
and larger structures and created a new architectural
vocabulary

Progress in the latter half of the nineteenth century saw

the development of larger spanning train sheds such as
Barlow and Ordish's St. Pancras Station with a span of
74m followed by
The Galerie des Machines for the 1889 Paris Exhibition
by Contamin and Dutert with the incredibly long span of
114m.

Contd
This shed represented the accumulation of constructional
experience gained throughout the 19th century
It innovated the principle of the three pinned arch,
pioneered the use of structural steel and its massive
proportions have never really been equalled
In the early 20th century the major technological advances
changed from land to air starting with the development of
the airship and were followed by the aeroplane

Contd
The need for large span structures arise
from
Community Buildings,
Sports Complexes,
Swimming Pools Roof,
Convention Centers,
Exhibition Halls,
Manufacturing Facilities,
Railway Station Structures
Aircraft Hangers and
Museums

Historical
Facts
Timber has been available as
a construction material for
most societies since the
human race first started to
build crude shelters at the
dawn of civilization.
The shelter frame work of Primeval
Man - (120000-40000 BC)

Contd

 First timber framed houses were constructed by the

farmers between 4500-3000 BC.
The durability of these houses is usually quiet less.

Primeval Mankind shelter

(40000 to 10000 BC)

Contd

The span of the long house ranging from 5.5 to 7 m.

Longhouse (4500 BC)

Longhouse (3000 BC)

Contd

 Between the 13th and 15th century, rural architecture took

on different regional forms. Materials traditionally used at
that time were timber, stone and clay.
From the 14th century, stone and brick were used as
structural materials for the construction of houses. The
main reason for their spread was fire resistance of these
materials. Floor structures of houses were made of timber
until 16th century.

Contd

Early timber bridges constructed by the romans were simple

beam structures of hewn tree trunks spanning between
timber piled piers.

Bridge Pons Sublicius, Rome, Italy

In 104 AD, Trajans bridge consisting of 20 piers up to 45 m

high joined by semi circular timber arches of 52 m span
was raised across the Danube river, Serbia.

Trajans bridge, Serbia

Andrea Palladio published an illustration of a timber bridge

spanning 30m over the cismone river in northeast Italy
which was constructed around 1550 AD

Palladios design for trussed bridges

 Between 1755 and 1758 Hans Ulrich Grubenmann

built the well known Rhine Bridge at Schaffhausen.
He designed the bridge as a single span of 119m but
was forced by the town authorities to change the
design and incorporate the existing central pier into
the bridge.

Model of Rhine bridge, Germany

 During the dramatic period of railway expansion in

the 19th century, many bridges and viaducts were
constructed in timber.
The timbers were expected to last 30 years but as
labour costs for maintenance increased, the bridges
were replaced and almost had been removed from
use by 1940.

History of Metals
500 BC - Cast Iron in Japan
500 BC - Wrought Iron in Greece
th

6 Century - Wrought Iron in China

1770 - Use of Cast iron for structural purpose
1779 - First Cast Iron bridge in Telford, England
1800 - Cast Iron was beginning to be replaced by wrought
iron.
1855 - Bessemer process. Late 1800 - Steel began to
replace wrought iron.

1920 - Arc welding

 The worlds first cast iron bridge was

built at Coalbrookdale, Telford, in 1779,
still carrying occasional light transport
and pedestrians.
Until 1840 the construction material
used was either cast iron or wrought
iron or a combination of both.
In the early 1800s cast iron was
beginning to be replaced by wrought
iron and many of the early railway
bridges were built of riveted wrought
iron construction. In late 1800s steel
began to replace wrought iron, and by
the early 1900s wrought iron was no
longer available.

 Weichsel Bridge (1857), was the first large wrought iron

girder railway bridge to be built in Germany.
Menangle Viaduct (1863), is the oldest existing railway
bridge in Australia. It has two wrought iron riveted box
girders and originally had three equal spans of 49.4m.

Weichsel Bridge

Menangle Viaduct

 Kymijoki railway bridge, was the first 3-span steel truss

bridge built in Finland.
Originally for a railway, this riveted bridge was converted
to carry road traffic in 1923, and is still in use today as a
footbridge.

 The Eads Bridge (Wrought Iron) was the longest arch

bridge in the world, When completed in 1874 with an
overall length of 6,442 feet (1,964 m).

The ribbed steel arch spans were considered daring, as

was the use of steel as a primary structural material.

It was the first such use of true steel in a major bridge

project.

Eads Bridge-(Longest span-158m)

 Before the advent of cast iron (1781) then steel (1893)

and finally reinforced concrete, stone and timber were
the only available materials for buildings.

The Crystal Palace (1851), Cast Iron

 Long-span structures in steel developed more slowly than

the high-rise in the years from 1895 to 1945, and none
exceeded the span of the Gallery of Machines.

Gallery of Machines (Paris-1889), Cast Iron and

Contd
Wrought Iron

 Two-hinge (made of a single member hinged at each end)

and three-hinge (made of two members hinged at each
end and at the meeting point at the crown) trussed arches
were widely used.

Euston Station-(London-1840), Cast Iron

Contd

 The largest examples being two great airship hangars for

the U.S. Navy in New Jerseythe first built in 1922 with
a span of 79 metres (262 feet), the second in 1942 with
a span of 100 metres (328 feet)

Airship Hangers U.S. Navy

Contd

 Cast Iron Structural frame work with load bearing infill

were being used in English mills and warehouses by the
turn of the 19th century.

First Steel frame building in London

(1906-Ritz hotel)

Materials suitable for various

forms of long span structures
Reinforced Concrete including Precast
Metal (e.g. mild-steel, structural steel,
Stainless steel or alloyed aluminum)

Timber
Laminated timber
Metal/RC combined
Plastic-coated Textile material
Fiber reinforced plastic

Contd

types of structural systems

Beam Structures
Frame structures - Portals

Plane Trusses and Space trusses

Arch structures
Vault structures
Dome structures
Shell structures

Masted Structures

Cable structures
Membrane structures

Beam Structures

Frame Structures
Linear elements forming frames with orthogonal rigid
joints
Vertical members (columns) subjected to axial load
(compression & tension)
Horizontal members (beams) subjected to flexure
(moment)

Bending elements are less efficient for large spans

because they use only half of the material (bending
stress varies from compression to tension with zero stress
at the neutral axis)

Trusses
A truss is a structural frame based on the geometric
rigidity of the triangle. Linear members are subjected
only to axial tension and compression. They support
load much like beams but for larger spans

A space truss is a long-spanning three-dimensional

plate structure based on the rigidity of the triangle
Two-way space trusses are most effective if the spans in
the principle directions are almost equal.

Trusses

PLANE TRUSS

SPACE TRUSS

Arch Structures
Arches are the structural
elements that span a
horizontal distance carrying
loads totally or mainly by
internal compression

The
most
important
characteristic of the arch
is that it does thrust
outwards
on
its
abutments and weighing
down vertically on them

Arch Structures
Some more on Arches

Vault Structures
The vault is a structural
system that distributes loads
by arch action through a
single curved plane to
continuous supports
The stresses within the vault
are primarily compressive. It
can be considered as a
curved
bearing
wall
enclosing a space
Lateral stability is developed
within the plane of the vault,
due to its continuous form

Vault Structures

Dome Structures
The dome is a structural form, which
distributes loads to supports through
a doubly curved plane
Continuous geometric form, without
corners or perpendicular changes in
surface direction. The dome must be
designed to resist compressive
stresses along the meridian lines
and to resolve circumferential tensile
forces in the lower portion of
hemispherical domes
The dome is an extremely stable
structural form and resists lateral
deformation through its geometry

Shell Structures
Shells are thin, curved plate
structures
typically
constructed
of
reinforced
concrete

A shell can sustain relatively

large forces if uniformly
applied. Because of its
thinness however, a shell has
little bending resistance and is
unstable for concentrated
loads

Shell Structures

Shell Structures

MASTED Structures

Cable Structures
Cable
structures
utilize the cable as
the
principle
means of support
They are effective
if the curvature is
compatible
with
spatial
design
objectives, and the
thrust is resisted
by a compression
ring or grandstand.

 Membranes are thin, flexible

surfaces that carry loads primarily
through the development of tensile
stresses
They may be suspended or
stretched between posts or be
supported by air pressure
Air-supported structures consists of
a single membrane supported by
an internal air pressure slightly
higher than normal atmospheric
pressure
Air-inflated
structures
are
supported by pressurized air within
inflated building elements

Plan of Exhibition Hall

Section

Key Plan

Section

61

64

65

66

Gandhiji s principles

Self sustenance
Gather People of India
Service to Mankind
Lead the Change
&

Their Best display

The Dandi March

secretariat

http://www.planetizen.com/node/49410

THOUGHT OF TRUTH REALIZING

The Dandi March

The Wave of Freedom

March for Salt

thro
Villages of Gujarat

The Dandi March

By Gandhiji &
Freedom Fighters

Plan

Section

76

77

78

79

80

83

84

Key Plan

Elevation View of truss

93

Plan

Elevation of Truss

Elevation of Truss

Elevation of Truss

Plan

Elevation
of Truss

Elevation of Truss

Plan

Elevation of Truss

Elevation of Truss