Course Title : metallic

condensed matters
Lecture 4.
4 Mechanical properties
of metallic materials and
mechanical test techniques
Lecture
Lect
e Plan
Plan:
1.
Concepts of stress and strain. Mechanical tests
2.
Elastic deformation
3.
Plastic deformation
4.
Strain & stress diagram
5
5.
Design safety factors

The fist problem is to ensure the safe service of mechanisms and

constructions those are usually under load and prevent their fracture and the
second is to fabricate new structural materials with desired mechanical
properties and microstructure. At that the key mechanical design properties are
stiffness, strength, hardness, ductility, and toughness.
The mechanical p
properties
p
of materials are investigated
g
by
y p
performing
g
carefully designed standardized laboratory experiments that replicate as nearly
as possible the service conditions. Factors to be considered include the nature of
the applied load and duration of test, as well as the environmental conditions.
Important Terms and Concepts
Sample -
design stress -

ductility -
elastic deformation

elastic recovery -

engineering strain
()
engineering stress
()
hardness -
modulus of elasticity

Poissons ratio

proportional limit -
(
resilience
safe stress -
shear -
stiffness -
tensile strength -

toughness

true strain
true stress
yielding -
yield strength -
2

CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND STRAIN

A load is static when all changes are relatively slow with time and the load is
applied uniformly over a cross section or surface of a sample. In this case the
mechanical behavior may be defined by a simple stressstrain test; these are
most commonly conducted for metals at room temperature. There are three
principal ways in which a load may be applied: namely, tension, compression,
shear. Consider each kind of mechanical test in more detail.

Tensile Tests
(a)

(b)

(c)

(c) The specimen

is elongated by
the moving
crosshead; load
cell and
extensometer
t
t
measure,
respectively, the
magnitude of the
applied load and
the elongation.

Fig.1
Fig
1 (a) Schematic illustration of how a tensile load produces an
elongation and positive linear strain. Dashed lines represent the shape
3
before deformation; solid lines, after deformation.
(b) tensile-testing machine.

Fig.2 A standard tensile specimens with circular and rectangular

cross section (cylindrical shape and plate shape, respectively).

One of the most common mechanical stress

stressstrain
strain tests is tensile test.
test A
specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing tensile
load that is applied uniaxially along the long axis of a specimen.

Tensile specimens can be with circular or rectangular cross sections. The

specimen is mounted
d by
b its ends
d into the
h holding
h ld
grips off the
h tensile
l testing
machine. This machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a constant rate
and to continuously and simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied
load (with a load cell) and the resulting elongations (using an extensometer).

A stressstrain test typically takes several minutes to perform and is

destructive; that is, the test specimen is permanently deformed and usually
fractured. The output of such a tensile test is recorded (usually on a computer)
as load
l d or force
f
versus elongation.
l
i
4

Load and elongation are expressed in terms of respective parameters of

engineering stress and engineering strain. Engineering stress is defined by
the relationship

F
=
(1)
S0
in which F is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the specimen cross
section, in units of [N], and S0 is the original cross-sectional area before any load
is applied [m2]. The unit of engineering stress (referred to subsequently as just
stress)) is [[MPa]] ((where 1 MPa = 106 N/m
/ 2)).
Engineering strain is defined according to

l i l 0 l
=
=
l0
l0

(2)

in which l0 is the original length before any load is applied and li is the current
value of length. The difference li - l0 is denoted as l and is the deformation
elongation or change in length at some instant, as referenced to the original
length. Engineering strain (or deformation) is unitless or can be expressed in %,
f this
for
hi the
h strain
i value
l
i multiplied
is
l i li d by
b 100.
100
5

Compression Tests
Fig.3. Schematic illustration of how a compressive load
produces contraction and a negative linear strain.
A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile
test except that the force is compressive and the specimen
test,
contracts along the direction of the stress. Equations (1-2) are
utilized to compute compressive stress and strain, respectively.
By convention, a compressive force is taken to be negative, which yields a
negative stress. Furthermore, because l0 is greater than li , compressive strains
computed from (2) are necessarily also negative. Compressive tests are used
when a materials behavior under large and permanent (i.e., plastic) strains is
d i d as in
desired,
i manufacturing
f
i
applications,
li
i
or when
h
the
h material
i l is
i brittle
b i l in
i
tension.

Shear and Torsional Tests

Fig.4 (c) Schematic representation of
shear strain .
(d) Schematic
representation of torsional
deformation (i.e., angle of twist)
produced by an applied torque T.
6

The shear
Th
h
ttestt iis shown
h
iin Fi
Fig. 4
4c. Here
H
th
the lower
l
face
f
off the
th cube
b is
i fixed
fi d
rigidly and the force is imposed parallel to the upper face of the cube. The
resulting shear stress is calculated according to

F
=
,
S0

= tan

(3)

where F is the load or force imposed, S0 an area of upper or bottom face.

Torsion is a variation of pure shear, wherein a sample is twisted: torsional
forces produce a rotational motion about the longitudinal axis of one end of the
sample relative to the other end. Examples of torsion are found for machine
axles
l
and
d drive
d i
shafts,
h ft and
d also
l
f
for
t i t drills.
twist
d ill Torsional
T i
l tests
t t are normally
ll
performed on cylindrical solid shafts or tubes. A shear stress is a function of
the applied torque T, whereas shear strain is related to the angle of twist.
7

Geometric Considerations of the Stress State

Fig.5 Schematic representation showing normal and

shear (
()
) stresses that act on a p
plane oriented at an
angle relative to the plane taken perpendicular to the
direction along which a pure tensile stress is applied.
The stress value depends on the orientation of the plane upon
which the stress is taken to act. For example, consider the
cylindrical tensile specimen that is subjected to a tensile stress
applied parallel to its axis (Figure 4).
4) Consider also the plane p
pp that is oriented at some arbitrary angle relative to the
plane of the specimen cross-section. The external stress can
be expressed as a vector sum of a tensile stress normal to the
p-p plane and a shear stress that acts parallel to this plane.
and in terms of and , take the form

sin 2
1 + cos 2

= cos =
, = sin cos =
(4)
2

2
8

STRESSSTRAIN BEHAVIOR : Elastic deformation

At low
l
l
levels
l off stress
t
f mostt metals
for
t l the
th stress
t
value
l
i proportional
is
ti
l to
t strain
t i

= E (5)

This is Hookes law, where E (GPa) is the modulus of elasticity,

or Youngs modulus. For most typical metals the magnitude of
this modulus ranges between 45 GPa for Mg,
Mg and 407 GPa for W.
W
Fig.6. Schematic stressstrain diagram showing
linear (
(a)
) and nonlinear elastic deformation for
loading and unloading cycles.
The slope of this linear segment is the modulus of
elasticity
y E - an indicator of materials resistance to
elastic deformation or stiffness. The greater the
modulus, the stiffer the material, or the smaller the
elastic strain that results from the application of a given
stress Elastic deformation is reversible.
stress.
reversible
For some materials (gray cast iron, concrete, polymers)
the elastic portion of the stressstrain curve is not linear.
For this nonlinear behavior, either tangent ()
or secant modulus ( ) is normally used.
Tangent modulus is taken as the slope of the stressstrain
curve at some point of stress,
stress whereas secant modulus
represents the slope of a secant drawn from the origin to
9
some given point of the curve.

Table 1 Room-Temperature Elastic and

Shear Moduli and Poissons Ratio for Various
M t l All
Metal
Alloys

Plot of modulus of elasticity versus

temperature for tungsten, steel, and
aluminum.

Values of the modulus E for ceramic materials are about the same as for metals;
for polymers they are lower. With increasing temperature, the modulus of
elasticity diminishes.

ES o l
F=
= kx,
lo
Elastic energy

ES o
k=
, x = l
lo
1 2
U e /( S olo ) = F dx = E
2
where

10

ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Fig. 7 Axial (z) elongation (positive strain)
and lateral (x and y) contractions (negative
strains) in response to an imposed tensile
stress Solid lines represent dimensions after
stress.
stress application; dashed lines, before.

v=

= Y
Z
Z

Theoretically, Poissons ratio for isotropic materials should be 1/4

Theoretically
; the maximum value (or that value for which there is no net
volume change) is 0.50. For many metals and other alloys,
values of Poissons ratio range
g between 0.25 and 0.35.
For isotropic materials, shear or bulk and elastic moduli are connected
with Poisson
Poissons
s ratio by the relation

E = 2 G (1 + v ) = 3 B (1 2 v )
11

Elastic constants for homogeneous materials

Shear stress and strain are proportional to each other

G = /
where G is the shear modulus, the slope of the linear
elastic region of the shear stressstrain curve.

The bulk modulus (B) of a substance measures

the substance's resistance to uniform
compression.

dP
B = V
dV
EG
E
B=
=
3(3G E ) 3(1 2v)
3BE
3B (1 2v)
G=
=
9B E
2(1 + v)

E = 2G (1 + v ) = 3B(1 2v)
3B 2G
3B E
E
=
1 =
v=
2(3B + G )
6B
2G
12

Plastic Deformation
For most metallic materials,
materials elastic deformation persists only to strains of
about 0.005. As the material is deformed beyond this point, the stress is no longer
proportional to strain, and permanent, nonrecoverable, i.e. plastic deformation
occurs. From an atomic p
perspective,
p
p
plastic deformation corresponds
p
to the
breaking of bonds with original atom neighbors and then re-forming bonds with
new neighbors as large numbers of atoms or molecules move relative to one
another; upon removal of the stress they do not return to their original positions.
For crystalline solids,
solids deformation is accomplished by means of a process
called slip, which involves the motion of dislocations. Plastic deformation in
noncrystalline solids (as well as liquids) occurs by a viscous flow mechanism.
Fig. 9
(a) Typical stressstrain behavior for a
metal showing elastic and plastic
d f
deformations,
i
the
h proportional
i
l limit
li i P,
P and
d
the yield strength as determined using the
0.002 strain offset method.
(b) Representative stress
stressstrain
strain behavior
found for some steels demonstrating the
yield point phenomenon. (
)
13

TENSILE PROPERTIES Yielding and Yield Strength

Figure 10. Typical yield behavior for
non-ferrous alloys.
1:
2:
3:
4:

True elastic limit

Proportionality limit
Elastic limit
Yield strength

True elastic limit : The lowest stress at which dislocations move. This
definition
de
t o is
s rarely
a e y used, s
since
ce d
dislocations
s ocat o s move
o e at very
e y low
o st
stresses,
esses, a
and
d
detecting such movement is very difficult.
Proportionality limit : Point P (Fig. 9a). Up to this point, stress is
proportional
ti
l to
t strain
t i (Hookes
(H k law),
l ) so the
th stress-strain
t
t i graph
h is
i a straight
t i ht
line, and the gradient will be equal to the elastic modulus of the material.
y
the elastic limit,, p
permanent deformation will occur. The
Elastic limit : Beyond
lowest stress at which permanent deformation can be measured.
14

Yield point or yield strength (proof stress

) : The position of this point P is difficult to measure precisely.
As a consequence, a convention has
h been
b
established
bl h d wherein
h
a straight
h
line is constructed parallel to the elastic portion of the stressstrain curve
at some specified strain offset, usually 0.002. The stress corresponding to
the intersection of this line and the stress
stressstrain
strain curve as it bends over in
the plastic region is defined as the yield strength Y [MPa].
Upper yield point and lower yield point :
Some metals, such as mild steel ( ),
demonstrate the onset of plastic deformation as shown in Fig 9b. At the
upper yield point, plastic deformation is initiated with an apparent decrease
in engineering stress.
stress Continued deformation fluctuates slightly about some
constant stress value, termed the lower yield point; stress subsequently
rises with increasing strain.
The material response is linear up until the upper yield point, but the lower
yield point is used in structural engineering as a conservative value.

15

Stress-strain diagram. Tensile Strength

Fig. 11
Typical engineering stressstrain behavior to
fracture, point F. The tensile strength TS is
indicated at point M. The circular insets
represent the geometry of the deformed
specimen at various points along the curve.
The tensile strength TS is the stress at the
maximum on the engineering stressstrain
curve.
All deformation up to this point is uniform. At the
maximum stress, a small constriction or neck begins to
form at some point, and all subsequent deformation is
confined at this neck. If this stress continues to be applied,
fracture will result in the neck.
g
((

)) may
y vary
y anywhere
y
from 50
Tensile strengths
MPa for an aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa for the high-strength steels. Ordinarily,
when the strength of a metal is cited for design purposes, the yield strength is used.
The fracture strength corresponds to the stress at fracture.

16

Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been

sustained at fracture.
Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or
percent reduction in area. The percent elongation is the percentage of plastic
strain at fracture
where
he e lf is the fracture
f act e
l f l0
length and l0 is the original
100% gauge length as given
=
earlier
l0

Percent reduction in area is defined as

S0 S f
=
S0

100 %

where S0 is the original cross-sectional area

and Sf is the cross-sectional area at the point
of fracture.
Fig. 12 Schematic
representations of tensile stress
strain behavior for brittle and
ductile metals loaded to fracture.

17

Table 2 Typical Mechanical Properties of Several Metals and Alloys in

an Annealed State

Fig. 13
Engineering stressstrain behavior for
iron at three temperatures.
temperatures

18

Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed

elastically
y and then,, upon
p
unloading,
g, to have this energy
gy recovered ((J/m
/ 3)). The
associated property is the modulus of resilience, Ur, which is the strain energy
per unit volume required to stress a material from an unloaded state up to the
point of yielding. Computationally, the modulus of resilience for a specimen
subjected to a uniaxial tension test is just the area under the engineering stress
stress
Y
strain curve taken to yielding (Fig.14)
r
0
Assuming a linear elastic region,

1
Y2
U r = Y Y =
2
2E

in which Y is the strain at y

yielding.
g

Thus this area under the stressstrain curve represents

energy absorption per unit volume of material.
material The
resilient materials are those having high yield strengths
and low moduli of elasticity; such alloys can be used in
spring applications.

Fig.14 Schematic representation showing how modulus

off resilience
l
(corresponding
(
d
to the
h shaded
h d d area)) is
determined from the tensile stressstrain behavior of a
material.

19

ELASTIC RECOVERY AFTER PLASTIC DEFORMATION

Fig.15 Schematic tensile stressstrain diagram
showing the phenomena of elastic strain recovery and
strain hardening. The initial yield strength is
designated as is the yield strength after releasing the
load at point D, and then upon reloading.

Toughness

During the unloading cycle, the curve traces a near

straight-line
t i ht li
path
th from
f
the
th point
i t off unloading
l di
(point
( i t D),
D)
and its slope is virtually identical to the modulus of
elasticity, or parallel to the initial elastic portion of the
curve.
cu
e The
e magnitude
ag tude of
o this
t s elastic
e ast c strain,
st a , which
c is
s
regained during unloading, corresponds to the elastic
strain recovery.

For the static deformation, a measure of toughness in metals (derived from

plastic deformation) may be ascertained from the results of a tensile stress
strain test. It is the area under the - curve up to the point of fracture. The
units are [energy per unit volume of material].
For a metal to be tough, it must display both strength and ductility.
Hence, even though the brittle metal has higher yield and tensile strengths, it
has a lower toughness than the ductile one,
one as can be seen by comparing the
areas ABC and ABC (Fig.12).
20

TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN

True stress is defined as the load F divided by the
instantaneous cross-sectional area Si over which
deformation is occurring. True strain - T .

T =

F
Si

li
T = ln
l0

If no volume change occurs during deformation

Si l i = S0l 0

true and engineering stress and strain are related as

T = (1 + )

T = ln(1 + )

Equations are valid only to the onset of necking; the true stress necessary to
sustain
t i iincreasing
i
strain
t i continues
ti
tto rise
i pastt th
the ttensile
il point
i t M.
M Coincident
C i id t with
ith
the formation of a neck is the introduction of a complex stress state within the
neck region (i.e., the existence of other stress components in addition to the axial
stress).
) So the correct stress ((axial)) within the neck is slightly
g y lower than the
stress computed from the applied load and neck cross-sectional area. For some
metals and alloys the region of the true stressstrain curve from the onset of
plastic deformation to the point at which necking begins may be approximated by
Th parameter
The
t n is
i often
ft
ttermed
d the
th strain
t i hardening
h d i
n
exponent and has a value less than unity.
T
T
21

= K

HARDNESS

is a measure of a materials resistance to localized plastic

deformation (e.g., a small dent or a scratch).

Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other

mechanical test for several reasons:
1. They are simple and inexpensiveordinarily no special specimen need be
prepared, and the testing apparatus is relatively inexpensive.
2. The test is nondestructivethe specimen is neither fractured nor excessively
deformed; a small indentation is the only deformation.
3 Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness data,
3.
data
such as tensile strength.

22

Correlation between Hardness and Tensile Strength

Both tensile strength and hardness are indicators of a metals resistance to
plastic deformation. Consequently, they are roughly proportional, as shown in
Figure 19, for tensile strength as a function of the HB for cast iron, steel, and
b
brass.
Th
The same proportionality
ti
lit relationship
l ti
hi d
does nott hold
h ld ffor all
ll metals,
t l as Figure
Fi
19 indicates.
As a rule of thumb for most steels, the HB and the tensile strength are related
according to

TS (MPa
MP ) = 3.45 HB

Figure 17
Relationships
p between hardness and
tensile strength for steel, brass, and
cast iron

23

DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS
For less critical static situations and when tough materials are used
used, a design
stress, d, is taken as the calculated stress level c (on the basis of the
estimated maximum load) multiplied by a design factor, N
where N
N is greater than unity. Thus, the material to be used for
d = N C the particular application is chosen so as to have a yield strength
at least as high as this value of d.
Alternatively, a safe stress or working stress,
Alternatively
stress w, is used instead of design stress.
stress
This safe stress is based on the yield strength of the material and is defined as
the yield strength divided by a factor of safety, N, or

w = Y / N
The choice of an appropriate value of N is necessary. If N is too large, then
componentt overdesign
d i
will
ill result;
lt that
th t is,
i either
ith
t
too
much
h material
t i l or an alloy
ll
having a higher-than-necessary strength will be used. Values normally range
between 1.2 and 4.0. Selection of N will depend on a number of factors,
including economics, previous experience, the accuracy with which mechanical
forces and material properties may be determined, and, most important, the
consequences of failure in terms of loss of life and/or property damage. Because
large N values lead to increased material cost and weight, structural designers
are moving
i
t
toward
d using
i
t
tougher
h
materials
t i l with
ith redundant
d d t (and
( d inspectable)
i
t bl )
designs, where economically feasible.
24