UNIT 3

HEAT AND HEAT TRANSFER

During the eighteenth century heat was assumed to be a subtle fluid called calorie. The production of
heat by friction as well as its disappearance during the performance of external mechanical work
established its essential physical nature as another form of energy and led to the overthrow of the
caloric theory. Nevertheless, we still speak of the flow of heat as though it were a fluid and have
retained the methods of measuring the quantity of heat originally devised by the upholders of the
caloric view.
Temperature changes are produced by the addition or subtraction of heat from a body. Thus,
temperature may be regarded as a measure of the concentration or intensity of heat. In general, the
more heat we add to a given body the more its temperature rises.
To obtain a continuous and reproducible physical scale of temperature, various types of thermometers
have been devised of which the mercury-in-glass or colored-alcohol-in-glass are familiar examples.
The two temperature scales in common use are the Fahrenheit scale and the Celsius scale. The first
assigns the respective values of 32 and 212 to the normal freezing and boiling points of pure water,
respectively, and divides this interval into 180 equal sub-intervals or degrees. The Celsius scale
formely called the Centrigade scale, assings the respective values of 0 and 100 to the above fixed
points; the standard interval is then divided into 100 equal degrees. There are also some other devices
for measurement of temperature , such as: gas thermometer, thermocouple, resistance thermometer and
optical pyrometer, used at very high temperatures.
Heat can be transferred by three different methods : by CONDUCTION where the heat must diffuse
through solid materials or through stagnant fluids; by CONVECTION, where the heat is carried from
one poin to another by actual movement of the hot material (common in fluids) ;and by RADIATION,
where heat transferred by means of radiant wave energy.
Some of the more common cases of industrial heat transfer are:
1. Radiation from fuel beds and luminous gases to absorptive surfaces such as boilers, cylinder
walls, etc.;
2. Radiation from heat generators such as drying lamps;
3. Convection of heat out of combustion regions;
4. Concevtion of heat from hot surfaces under either free or forced convection;
5. Conduction of heat through the tubes of boilers, heaters, heat exchangers, condensers, etc.;
6. Conduction in walls, pipe covering, and other so-called heat insulators;
7. Conduction of heat through the plates of plate-type heat exchangers and regenerators.