Instructors Guide

Fluid Mechanics Module

Objectives
The objectives of this module are to:
Provide background on hydrogen from its production to end-uses
Discuss the transport of liquid and gaseous hydrogen
Derive equations and solve a fully developed pipe flow problem
Background on Hydrogen
1. Uses for hydrogen
a. Aerospace (propellant)
b. Electronics (fiber optic production)
c. Fats & Oils (cosmetics)
d. Float Glass (windows)
e. H2 Energy/Fuel Cell
f. H2 powered vehicles
g. Utilities (coolant)
2. Hydrogen Production
a. Steam reforming of natural gas combines steam and methane, which
produce a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
b. Coal and biomass are the feedstock for gasification. The feedstock is
subjected to high temperature and pressure in an oxygen deficient
environment. This turns the carbonaceous substances into a mixture of
gases, consisting primarily of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
c. In electrolysis, electricity is passed through water, which splits it into its
basic elements, hydrogen and oxygen.
d. Biophotolysis uses microalgae-cynobacteria and green algae to generate
hydrogen from sunlight and water.
e. Photoelectrochemical systems use photovoltaics (a cell that that converts
solar energy into electrical energy) and electrolysis to split water in one
step.
3. Hydrogen Storage
a. Compressed Form
In compressed form, the hydrogen is compressed between 200-250
bars (2900-3600 psi) and stored in cylindrical tanks up to 50 L (13 gal).
The tanks are made from aluminum or carbon graphite.
b. Liquid hydrogen
Liquid hydrogen is stored at -253C (-425F).
c. Chemical Bonding
In chemical bonding hydrogen is bound to metal and liquid
hydrides and adsorbed carbon compounds. An example of a metal hydride

is hydrogen and FeTi. Hydrogen is injected at high pressure into a tank

filled with small particles of FeTi. When hydrogen bonds with the
material heat is released. To break the bond heat must be added. This is a
safe method, as hydrogen will not be released by accident. These
compounds, however, are bulky and heavy to transport.
4. Hydrogen Pumps
a. Cryogenic pumps
They have two low temperature zones, an inner surface at 20 K
and surrounding surface at 80 K. The inner surface is coated with
activated carbon that assists in pumping hydrogen by adsorption. To
achieve these low operating temperatures, the pump is attached to a
helium cryogenic compressor. Cryopumps are expensive per unit pumping
speed, but they can achieve high pumping speeds. They require periodic
recharging and vibration can be an issue.
b. Ion diode pump
Another common pump used in hydrogen applications is an ion
diode pump. It can obtain high pumping speeds with hydrogen, it is clean,
vibration free, has low power consumption, and a long operating life.
5. Transport of Hydrogen
a. Liquid hydrogen is mainly transported in trucks due to the low boiling
point of -425F. However, transportation from truck to the end use must
be done using a pipe.
b. Gaseous hydrogen is transported in pipelines, and can in fact be
transported using the existing natural gas pipelines.
6. Cost of Transporting
a. Average Prices
1. Road Tankers: $20/GJ (0.9 MBTU), circa 2002
2. Pipelines: 3/1 GJ (0.9 MBTU)/160,000 km(100 miles)
b. Pipeline Transport compared with natural gas
1. Hydrogen flows 3 times faster, but has less energy
2. Capacity of the compressors is 1/3 less
3. Pipeline transmission costs are 30-50% higher

Fluid Mechanics of Hydrogen Transport

There are two main types of flow: incompressible and compressible. For the scope of
this module, incompressible flows will be examined. Flow properties are important in
designing a system and finding system inefficiencies. For example, the volumetric flow
rate can be used to size a pump.
1. Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe
Now after covering the background on hydrogen, lets examine more indepth the method by which liquid hydrogen or incompressible gaseous hydrogen

flows in the pipe. Following is the derivation of several properties for fully
developed laminar flow in a pipe. Starting with the pressures and shear forces on
the control volume, the velocity profile is determined. Volumetric flow rate, shear
stress distribution, average velocity, and maximum velocity are calculated as well.
2. Momentum Equation

a.
udV + uVdA = Fsx + Fbx
t CV
CS
b. Assumptions:
i. Steady flow
ii. Fully developed flow
iii. Fbx = 0
iv. Incompressible flow
c. The momentum equation in the x-direction is the governing equation for
evaluating this differential control volume. With assumption (1), the time
dependent term is eliminated. With assumption (3), the body forces are
eliminated. With assumption (2), the momentum equation reduces to Fsx
= 0. Nomenclature: u = velocity of the fluid, V = local velocity, Fsx =
Surface forces, Fbx = body forces, CV = control volume, CS = control
surface
3. Forces
a. Pressure Forces act on both ends of the control volume
p dx
i. End 1: p
2rdr
x 2
p dx
ii. End 2: p +
2rdr
x 2
b. Shear Forces act on the inner and outer surfaces of the control volume
dr
dr
i. Inner Surface: rx rx
dx
2 r
r 2
2
rx dr
dr
dx
2 r +
r 2
2
c. Summation of shear and pressure forces leads to the following simplified
equation:
p rx rx

+
+
=0
x
r
r
i.
p rx rx 1 d (r rx )
=
+
=
x
r
r
r dr
4. Integrate and Apply Boundary Conditions
a. First integration
p
d (r rx ) = r dr
x
i.
2
r p
r rx =
+ C1
2 x
ii. Outer Surface: rx +

b. Since shear stress is equal to the product of the viscosity and velocity
gradient, the first integration becomes a function of velocity
du
i. Shear stress-velocity relationship: =
dr
du r p C1
=
+
ii. First integration:
dr 2 x r
c. Second integration
1 r 2 p
i. u =
+ C1 ln r + C2
4 x
d. Boundary Conditions
i. u(r = 0) = finite
ii. u(r = R) = 0
iii. Constants become
R 2 p
1. C1 = 0, C 2 =
4 x
1 p 2
e. Velocity Profile u =
r R2
4 x
5. Other flow properties are derived after determining the velocity profile
r p
a. Shear stress distribution =
2 x

Q = V d A = u 2rdr
b. Volumetric flow rate

Q=

V =
c. Average Velocity

R 4 p
8 x

Q
A

R 2 p
V =
8 x
1 p 2
d. Maximum velocity u max =
R
4 x
Example Problem
Given: Liquid hydrogen in a pipeline has a volumetric flow rate of 0.1 m3/s. The area to
be examined has a length of 1 m and a pressure drop of 10 MPa.
Find: The diameter in cm of this pipeline.
Given Parameters and Schematic
p = 10 Mpa
= 20 Pa s
= 75.155 kg/m3

1m

Assumptions
1. Laminar Flow
2. Steady Flow
3. Incompressible Flow
4. Fully Developed Flow
Solution: Since the volumetric flow rate and pressure drop are known, the radius can be
solved for directly from the volumetric flow rate equation from section 12b.

8QL
General Equation: R =
p

4
1Pa
m3
20 Pa s 6
1 .5

10 Pa
s
R=
1
1MPa
3 .5 m
6
6 MPa 10 Pa
R = 12.73cm
D = 25.46cm
Solve for Reynolds number to validate assumption of laminar flow

V=

Q 4Q
=
A D 2

Re =

V D 4 Q
=

Re = 2.82x10-7, Re<2300 laminar assumption is valid

Conclusions
Hydrogen has a lot of potential as our next major source of energy. By understanding
the fluid mechanics of hydrogen transport, we can help develop the distribution of
hydrogen for use in our society.

References
1. American Hydrogen Association, www.clean-air.org
2. Fox, Robert and Alan McDonald. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 4th Ed, 1992.
3. Goel, N. et.al. Hydrogen Production. Advances in Solar Energy. Vol. 9.
Boulder, CO. American Solar Energy Society, anticipated pub. Date Jan. 2003.
4. Sherif, S.A., F. Barbir, and T.N. Veziroglu. Hydrogen Energy Systems. Wiley
Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. Vol. 9 John Wiley and
Sons.