1

Isomers: same molecular formula but a different structural formula

Carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides: sweet, water soluble, reducing sugars
Disaccharides: sweet, water soluble, most are reducing (not sucrose)
Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose
Lactose: Glucose + Galactose
Maltose: Glucose + Glucose
Polysaccharides: long chains of repeating subunits (monosaccharides) joined by condensation
reactions

Proteins
Polymers made up of
amino acids.

General fatty acid

Triglycerides
Fatty acid chains can be saturated (no C=C) or
unsaturated (have C=C bonds). The more
unsaturated the fatty acid the lower the melting
point. Fats are insoluble ion water. A phospholipid
has a fatty acid replace with a phosphate group.
This means it has a hydrophilic region (phosphate
head) and hydrophobic regions fatty acid tail. It is
integral in the cell membrane.

Glycerol

Formation of a triglyceride

Globular Proteins
The vast majority of proteins are globular, i.e. they have
a compact, ball-shaped structure. This group includes
enzymes, membrane proteins, receptors and storage
proteins. The diagram below shows a typical globular
enzyme molecule. It has been drawn to highlight the
different secondary structures.
Globular Proteins
Have complex tertiary and sometimes quaternary
structures.
Folded into spherical (globular) shapes.
Usually soluble as hydrophobic side chains in centre of
structure.
Roles in metabolic reactions.
E.g. enzymes, haemoglobin in blood.
Fibrous (or Filamentous) Proteins Fibrous proteins
are long and thin, like ropes. They tend to have structural
roles, such as collagen (bone), keratin (hair), tubulin
(cytoskeleton) and actin (muscle). They are always
composed of many polypeptide chains. This diagram
shows part of a molecule of collagen, which is found in
bone and cartilage.
Fibrous Proteins
Little or no tertiary structure.
Long parallel polypeptide chains.
Cross linkages at intervals forming long fibres or
sheets.
Usually insoluble.

Describe how enzymes break down substances

Lowering the activation energy
Substrate with a complementary shape to the active
enters the active site
An enzyme substrate complex is formed
Active site changes shape to mould around the
substrate (induced fit)
This weakens the bonds in the substrate (lowering
activation energy) by stretching and distorting them
The bonds are broken
Products leave the active site
Enzyme remains unchanged

Explain how inhibitors affect enzyme activity

There are two types of inhibitor, competitive and
non-competitive
Competitive inhibitors have a similar shape to the
substrate
They can enter and bind with the active site
Prevents enzyme substrate complexes forming
The problem can be overcome by increasing the
substrate concentration
Non-competitive inhibitors
Have a different shape to the substrate
Bind at a point other than the active site
They cause a change in the shape of the active site
Prevent formation of enzyme substrate complexes

The effect of pH on the rate of enzyme activity

Changes in the pH affect the charges on the R
groups of the amino acids at the active site
Interactions between the substrate and enzyme are
disrupted
Enzyme substrate complexes are less likely to form
More extreme pH conditions can cause the bonds
(ionic, Hydrogen) holding the tertiary structure to
break
The enzyme denatures (active site is no longer
complementary to the substrate)
No enzyme substrate complexes can form

Describe how an enzyme catalyses a condensation

reaction
Enzyme active site has a complementary shape to the
substrate
An enzyme substrate complex is formed
The reactive groupshydroxyl, hydroxyl/ amino, and
carboxylic / hydroxyl and carboxylic are brought close
together
Change in the shape of the active site (induced fit) lowers
the activation energy
Water is removed and a glycosidic, peptide or ester bond
forms
Products leave the active site
The enzyme remains unchanged

How the shape of the enzyme/protein molecules

is suited to its function
Each enzyme/protein has specific primary structure
(amino acid sequence)
this sequence determines where the H-bonds will
form during development of the secondary structure
Proteins have a unique tertiary structure (further
folding of the secondary structure) held by ionic and
hydrogen bonds and if amino acids containing
cysteine are present, disulphide bridges
Globular proteins have an active site with unique
structure;
shape of active site complementary to/ will only fit
that of substrate
Enzyme substrate complexes can form

The effect of temperature on the rate of an

enzyme reaction
As temperature increases so does the rate of the
reaction as
Substrate and enzyme gain K.E and collide more
frequently
More enzyme substrate complexes form
Further increases in the temperature cause bonds
(ionic, disulphide, hydrogen) holding the tertiary
structure of the enzyme in place begin to break
The enzyme denatures,
The active site no longer complements the substrate
No enzyme substrate complexes can form

Explain how the small intestine is adapted to its function in the digestion and
absorption of the products of digestion.
Large surface area provided by villi and microvilli
Thin epithelium gives a short diffusion pathway
The dense capillary network for absorbing amino acids and sugars and the lacteal
for the absorption of digested fats; ensures a steep concentration gradient is
maintained
The many mitochondria in the epithelial cells supply ATP/ energy for active
transport
Carrier proteins (in membranes) provide a path for polar molecules to pass through
the membrane.
Enzymes built into the epithelial membrane make it more likely for enzyme
substrate complexes to form and ensure products for absorption are released close to
the carrier and channel proteins

Digestion of Carbohydrates and Disaccharides Starch Digestion:

Amylase
Hydrolyses
Glycosidic bonds
Producing maltose
Maltase hydrolyses
maltose to glucose

Absorption of glucose in intestines

Glucose moves into the epithelial cell with sodium Via a symport carrier
protein;
Sodium is removed from the epithelial cell by active transport at the sodiumpotassium pump;
Maintaining a sodium concentration gradient between the lumen and
epithelial cell
Glucose moves into blood by facilitated diffusion
And is carried away in the Heaptic portal vein

Lactose intolerance
Cause: reduced lactase levels as we age
Symptoms: diarrhoea and gas and cramps
Explanation
Gas comes from bacteria breaking down the
sugar
Diarrhoea: sugar lowers the water potential of
the lumen compared to epithelial cells, water
moves into the lumen by osmosis

Food moves through the

digestive system by peristalsis.
Mouth = digestion of carbs
Stomach = digestion of protein
Duodenum = most digestion,
receives pancreatic juice from
pancreatic duct and bile form
gall bladder (produced in liver)
Ileum = most absorption
Colon = absorption of water and
5
minerals

Membrane and Movement

The membrane is a phospholipid bilayer
Where the hydrophobic tails point inwards and the hydrophilic heads face
outwards
The membrane contains two types of proteins
Intrinsic proteins (allow transport of water soluble molecules): spanning the
entire bilayer
Extrinsic proteins: found on one side of the membrane
Most molecules move across the membrane by diffusion down a concentration
gradient
Small molecules (water/gases) and lipid soluble molecules diffuse between the
phospholipids
Polar molecules require channel or carrier proteins to move them
Channels are water filled pores that can be open at all times or they can be
gated (voltage/ligand gated)
Carrier proteins have a specific binding site for the molecules/ions
This can be facilitated diffusion, a passive (no ATP required) process
Some molecules are actively transported across the membrane (against the
Describe the structure of a cell membrane and
concentration gradient)
phospholipids.
This requires
ATP (released
in respiration)
How the membrane regulates the movement
of substances
into and
out of
Described as fluid mosaic.
The ATP changes the shape of the protein to move the molecule across the
cells.
How plasma membrane is
membrane
through phospholipid bilayer;
Fluid: molecules within the membrane able to Non-polar/lipid soluble molecules move
adapted for its functions.
Small molecules/water/gases move through phospholipid layer/bilayer;
move;
Phospholipid bilayer (as a barrier);
Ions/water soluble substances move through channels in proteins;
Forms a barrier to water soluble
Some proteins are gated;
Mosaic: mixture of phospholipid and protein
but allows non-polar substances to
Reference to diffusion;
pass so maintains a different
Carriers
identified
as
proteins;
Double layer of phospholipid molecules;
Carriers associated with facilitated diffusion;
environment on each side
Phospholipid consists of glycerol;
Carriers associated with active transport/transport with ATP/pumps;
(compartmentalisation)
To which are joined two fatty acids;
Different cells have different proteins;
Bilayer is fluid: can bend to take
And a phosphate;
Correct reference to cytosis;
up different shapes for
formed by condensation reaction
phagocytosis and form vesicles
How proteins are arranged in a plasma membrane and role
Phosphate head is hydrophilic/polar
Channel proteins (intrinsic): let
in transport
Fatty acid tail is hydrophobic
water soluble/substances through
1 Some proteins pass right through membrane;
the phospholipids are arranged as bilayer in
2 Some proteins associated with one layer;
(facilitated diffusion)
membrane;
3 Involved in facilitated diffusion;
Carrier proteins (intrinsic): allow
Heads on the outside and tails on the inside;
4 Involved in active transport;
facilitated diffusion and active
Intrinsic proteins molecules pass through entire
5 Proteins act as carriers;
transport
bilayer
6 Carrier changes shape / position;
Extrinsic proteins: act in cell
7 Proteins form channels / pores;
Some of the proteins have channels/pores;
recognition, act as antigens or
8 Protein allows passage of water soluble molecules /
Some have specific binding sites and are carrier
receptors;
charged particles / correct named example;
proteins
Cholesterol: regulates fluidity /
Describing the fluid-mosaic structure of a membrane
Extrinsic proteins only in one layer
Phospholipids and proteins;
increases stability;
Those on the outer side often act as receptors for
Phospholipid bilayer: Arrangement of phospholipid molecules Tails to tails;
hormones
Molecules can move in membrane;
7
Intrinsic proteins extend through bilayer: Channel and carrier proteins
Molecules can move in
Extrinsic proteins in outer layer only: Act as antigens, receptors
membrane/dynamic/membrane contains
Glycoproteins and glycolipids form glycocalyx
cholesterol;
Presence of cholesterol to help regulate fluidity
Many of the proteins and phospholipids have

glycoproteins that make up the Glycocalyx

The proteins usually span from one side of the

phospholipid bilayer to the other (integral proteins), but
can also sit on one of the surfaces (peripheral proteins).
They can slide around the membrane very quickly and
collide with each other, but can never flip from one side
to the other. The proteins have hydrophilic amino acids in
contact with the water on the outside of membranes, and
hydrophobic amino acids in contact with the fatty chains
inside the membrane.

The phospholipids are arranged in a bilayer (i.e. a double

layer), with their polar, hydrophilic phosphate heads facing
out towards water, and their non-polar, hydrophobic fatty
acid tails facing each other in the middle of the bilayer. This
hydrophobic layer acts as a barrier to most molecules,
effectively isolating the two sides of the membrane.
Different kinds of membranes can contain phospholipids
with different fatty acids, affecting the strength and
flexibility of the membrane, and animal cell membranes
also contain cholesterol linking the fatty acids together and
so stabilising and strengthening the membrane.

10

Diffusion: net movement of molecules form a high concentration to a low concentration

Lipid soluble molecules can diffuse easily though the phospholipid bilayer along with small hydrophilic molecules like water, carbon dioxide and oxygen
Facilitated diffusion: a passive process, moving large, hydrophilic molecules down the concentration gradient. The molecules cannot pass though the
hydrophobic bilayer and must enter/exit the cell through channel proteins or carrier proteins that are specific to the molecules.

Active transport
Moves a molecule against the concentration gradient (low to high)
Requires a specific protein carrier
Energy/ATP is used to change the shape of the protein
Energy is released in respiration
Rate of movement of molecules in facilitated
diffusion is limited by the availability of
carrier/channel proteins in the membrane. As
concentration increase rate will eventually
level out as the channels or carriers are
working at their maximum rate/ fully
occupied.

11

Mechanism of the heart beat

Cardiac muscle is myogenic
The SAN
Sends a wave of electrical activity
(depolarisation) across the atria
This triggers atrial systole
The impulse is relayed to the ventricles through
the AVN
Passing down to the apex of the heart along the
bundle of His
The impulse spreads along the ventricle walls via
the purkyne fibres
The ventricles contract from the bottom
The AVN delays ventricular systole to allow them
to fill up with bloodDouble circulation: blood flows
through the heart twice for one
circuit of the body, needs repumped after losing pressure in
the lungs

Some key facts to learn

Valves in the heart and blood vessels prevent back flow
Tricuspid valve is on the right side of the heart
Bicuspid valve is on the left side of the heart
These two valves are called the atrioventricular valves
These valves are prevented from inverting as they are attached to
the papillary muscle in the ventricle walls, by tendinous cords
Semilunar valves are located between the ventricles and the aorta
and pulmonary artery. Rare for arteries to have valves
Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. Rare for
arteries to carry deoxygenated blood
Pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood to the heart from the lung,
rare for vein to have oxygenated blood.

Deoxygenated blood returns via

the vena cava to the RA (1).
Atrium contracts blood through
tricuspid into RV (2).
Ventricle contracts and tricuspid
shuts so blood enters the
pulmonary artery (3)
Blood returns to the LA (4) via
the pulmonary vein.
The LA contracts and blood
forced through the bicuspid valve
into the LV (5).
The LV contracts and the
bicuspid shuts and oxygenated
blood flows into the aorta (6)
The left ventricle has a thicker, more muscular wall than the right ventricle as it has to pump
blood around the whole body, so must generate a higher pressure.
Cardiac Output: is the amount of blood flowing through the
heart each minute. It is calculated as the product of the
heart rate and the stroke volume:
Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume
The heart rate can be calculated from the pressure graph
by measuring the time taken for one cardiac cycle and
using the formula:
Heart rate (beats/minute) = 60 time for 1 cycle

The stroke volume is the volume of

blood pumped in each beat. Both the
heart rate and the stroke volume can be
varied by the body. When the body
exercises the cardiac output can
increase dramatically so that
Oxygen and glucose can get to the
muscles faster
Carbon dioxide and lactate can be
carried away from the muscles faster
Heat can be carried away from the
muscles faster

When ventricular pressure > atrial pressure (1)

the atrioventricular valves shut to prevent
backflow, this is the first sound in the heart beat
(lub)
When the ventricular pressure < arterial
pressure (3) the semilunar valves shut, this is
the second sound of the heart beat (dup)
QRS = electrical activity in the ventricles, occurs
12
just before ventricle pressure increases
P = electrical activity in atria and PQ = time
delay due to AVN

13

Describe how atheroma may form and lead to a myocardial

infarction
Cholesterol deposited in the artery wall
This atheroma narrows lumen of the artery
This creates turbulence and can damage to lining of artery
Turbulence increases risk the of blood clot (thrombus)
The blood clot may break off (embolus)
And lodge in coronary artery;
Reduced blood supply to heart muscle;
Reduced oxygen supply;
Reduced respiration
Leads to death of heart muscle
How atheroma causes an aneurysm
Atheroma:
A build-up of cholesterol Fatty material within walls of arteries;
Vessels narrow;
in the artery wall
Blood pressure rises;
Weakened blood vessels may burst;

Smoking
decreases conc. of antioxidants in blood: this increases the damage done to artery walls;
raises the number of platelets in the blood and makes them more sticky :more blood clots are
likely to form;
causes constriction of coronary arteries: raises blood pressure and damage to the artery lining
carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin so less available to transport oxygen
blood pressure increased: due to increased heart rate
Fat
blood cholesterol level increases;
LDLs transport cholesterol in the blood;
LDLs deposit cholesterol in arteries
atheroma formed
blood pressure increased, turbulence makes clotting
more likely

Salt
Increased salt concentration in
blood
decreases water potential of the
blood
water moves into the blood
14
blood pressure increased

There are thousands of different kinds of cell, but the biggest

division is between the cells of the prokaryote kingdom (the
bacteria) and those of the other four kingdoms (animals, plants,
fungi and protoctista), which are all eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells,
and do not have a nucleus.
Prokaryote = without a nucleus
Eukaryote = with a nucleus
To see cells we need microscopes, like a light microscope. To see
the ultrastructure of a cell (the organelles inside) we need
electron microscopes.
If given a scale bar as below then the formula
to use is
bar
Magnification =

Actual length of scale

Representative length of

the scale bar

10

1000

1000

Ensure you work in the same units

20m
20 m

C y to p la s m
A

C a p su le

C e ll w a ll

Cm
nm

R ib o s o m e s

mm

Resolution: how close 2 points can be to each other and still be distinguished as 2 separate points.
Electron microscopes have a higher resolution than (light microscopes, as they use electrons that have a
shorter wavelength than light
Shorter wavelengths (like electrons) allow better resolution than longer wavelengths (like
light).

G e n e tic m a te r ia l

If no scale bar is given then the formula to use is

Image Size
Magnification =

Actual Size of image

Ensure you work in the same units and then

convert to the units they want at the end

Explain the advantages and limitations of using a transmission electron

microscope
Advantages
1 TEM uses (beam of) electrons;
2 These have short wavelength;
3 Allow high resolution/greater resolution/Allow more detail to
be seen/greater useful magnification;

How to use a microscope

to measure the size of an
object.

Disadvantages
4 Electrons scattered (by molecules in air);
5 Vacuum established;
6 Cannot examine living cells;
7 Lots of preparation/procedures used in preparing specimens/
fixing/staining/sectioning;
8 May alter appearance/result in artefacts;
9 very thin specimens
10 black and white, images

Calibrate with the stage

mcirometer (an object of a
known size)

Measure with an eyepiece

graticule

Repeat and calculate an

15
average

Magnification and Resolution

Magnification simply indicates how much bigger the image is
that the original object. It is usually given as a magnification
factor, e.g. x100. By using more lenses microscopes can
magnify by a larger amount, but the image may get more
blurred, so this doesn't always mean that more detail can be
seen.
Resolution is the smallest separation at which two separate
objects can be distinguished (or resolved), and is therefore a
distance (usually in nm). The resolution of a microscope is
ultimately limited by the wavelength of light used (400600nm for visible light). To improve the resolution a shorter
wavelength
of light is needed, and sometimes microscopes have blue
filters for this purpose (because blue has the shortest
wavelength of visible light).
Light Microscopes
These are the oldest, simplest and most widely-used form of
microscopy. Specimens are illuminated with light, which is
focused using glass lenses and viewed using the eye or
photographic film. Specimens can be living or dead, but often
need to be coloured with a coloured stain to make them
visible. Many different stains are available that stain specific
parts of the cell such as DNA, lipids, cytoskeleton, etc.

1. Using a Magnification Factor

Image length = 40 mm
The magnification = 1000
The actual length is 40/1000 =
0.04mm
Usually convert this to m = 40 m

Estimation of size
It is possible to estimate the size of a structure seen with a microscope by comparing the
image with a known linear scale. Two pieces of apparatus are commonly used:
a graticule (eyepiece micrometer)
a stage micrometer.
A stage micrometer is a slide with a fine scale of known dimension etched onto it. An
graticule is a fine scale that fits inside an eyepiece lens. This is shown in Fig 3.

Electron Microscopes
This uses a beam of electrons, rather than electromagnetic
radiation, to "illuminate" the specimen. This may seem
strange, but electrons behave like waves and can easily be
produced (using a hot wire), focused (using electromagnets)
and detected (using a phosphor screen or photographic film).
A beam of electrons has an effective wavelength of less than
1nm, so can be used to resolve small sub-cellular
ultrastructure. The development of the electron microscope in
the 1930s revolutionised biology, allowing organelles such as
mitochondria, ER and membranes to be seen in detail for the
first time.
There are two kinds of electron microscope.
Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) work much like a
light microscope, transmitting a beam of electrons through a
thin specimen and then focusing the electrons to form an
image on a screen or on film. This is the most common form
of electron microscope and has the best resolution (<1nm).
Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) scan a fine beam of
electron onto a specimen and collect the electrons scattered
by the surface. This has poorer resolution, but gives excellent
3-dimentional images of surfaces.

16

17

18

19

Folded inner membrane (cristae) increases the

surface area for the enzyme reactions.
Site of oxidative phosphorylation.
Fluid region = matrix
Has own circular DNA and 70s ribosomes, to
synthesise enzymes for respiration and allow
replication independent of the cell

Site of photosynthesis, fluid region is the

stroma and the membranes running
through are the thylakoid which can be
stacked to form grana. Contains
chlorophyll. Has its own circular DNA
and 70s ribosomes to synthesise enzymes
for the reactions and replicate

Nucleolus = synthesis of ribosomes

Nucleus
Thin strands of chromatin that condense at
replication to chromosomes.
Controls the cell through coded information
DNA
Nuclear pores allow movement of material
in and out

The golgi body is a stack of flattened membrane sacs that are referred to as
cisternae)
This is involved in the modification and packaging of materials from both the rough
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Addition of carbohydrates to form glycolipids
and glycoprotein (like mucus). It will also produce lysosomes (digestive enzymes)

Endoplasmic reticulum: is a stack of interconnected flattened sheets called cisternae

ER is Continuous with the nuclear envelope and can be either smooth or rough (studded with
ribosomes). The smooth ER is involved with the production of sterols, phospholipids and
detoxification.
The rough ER is involved with protein production at the ribosomes. Usually for export out of the
cell
20
The ER provides a pathway for materials through the cell Dominates in cells producing proteins
for export) digestive enzymes

Nucleus. This is the largest organelle. It is

surrounded by a nuclear envelope, which is
a double membrane with nuclear pores
large holes containing proteins that control
the exit of substances from the nucleus. The
interior is called the nucleoplasm, which is
full of chromatin the DNA/protein complex
(see unit 2). During cell division the
chromatin becomes condensed into discrete
observable chromosomes. The nucleolus is a
dark region of chromatin, involved in making
ribosomes.
Mitochondrion: This is a sausage-shaped
organelle (8Vm long), and is where aerobic
respiration takes place in all eukaryotic cells
(anaerobic respiration takes place in the
cytoplasm). Mitochondria release energy (in
the formATP) from carbohydrates, lipids and
other energy rich molecules. Cells that use a
lot of energy (like muscle cells) have many
mitochondria.
Mitochondria are surrounded by a double
membrane: the outer membrane is simple
and quite permeable, while the inner
membrane is highly folded into cristae,
which give it a large surface area. The space
enclosed by the inner membrane is called
the mitochondrial matrix, and contains small
circular strands of DNA. The inner
membrane is studded with stalked particles,
whichThese
are the
enzymes
that make
Ribosomes:
are
the smallest
and ATP.
most numerous of the cell organelles, and
are the sites of protein synthesis. Ribosomes
are either found free in the cytoplasm, where
they make proteins for the cell's own use, or
they are found attached to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum, where they make
proteins for export from the cell. All
eukaryotic ribosomes are of the larger, "80S",
type.
Lysosomes: These are small membrane-bound
vesicles formed from the RER containing a cocktail of
hydrolytic enzymes. They are used to break down
unwanted chemicals, toxins, organelles or even whole
cells, so that the materials may be recycled. They can
also fuse with a feeding vacuole to digest its contents.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER). This is a series of

interconnected membrane channels involved in
synthesising and transporting materials. Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is studded with
numerous ribosomes, which give it its rough
appearance. The ribosomes synthesise proteins,
which are processed in the RER (e.g. by
enzymatically modifying the polypeptide chain,
or adding carbohydrates), before being
exported from the cell via the Golgi Body.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) does not
have ribosomes and is used to process
materials, mainly lipids, needed by the cell.
Golgi Body (or Golgi Apparatus). Another series of
flattened stacks of membrane vesicles, formed
from the endoplasmic reticulum. Its job is to
transport proteins from the RER to the cell
membrane for export. Parts of the RER containing
proteins fuse with one side of the Golgi body
membranes, and are modified (carbohydrate is
added to form glycoproteins), while at the other
side small vesicles bud off and move towards the
cell membrane, where they fuse, releasing their
contents by exocytosis.
Chloroplast
Membranes arrangement and disc shape
provides large surface for light absorption;
layering of membrane allows a lot of pigment;
Permeable membrane allows diffusion of
gases /carbon dioxide;
membranes provide surface for attachment of
electron / hydrogen acceptors;
Contains chlorophyll for light absorption;
Contains different pigments to absorb
different wavelengths;
Stacking / arrangement of grana/thylakoids
maximises light catchment;
Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis;
Outer membrane keeps enzymes in
chloroplast;
Starch grains / lipid droplets store products of
photosynthesis;
Ribosomes / DNA for enzyme/protein
21
synthesis;
Shape of chloroplast gives large surface area
for CO2, absorption.

Parts of the prokaryotic cell and the function

A) Cell membrane: regulates
entry/exit/selectively permeable;
B) Mesosome: respiration/cell division;
C) Cell wall: (mechanical) protection/prevents
(osmotic) lysis;
D) Slime layer/capsule: protection (against e.g.
antibiotics);
E) Flagellum: movement of cell;
Vibrio
F)
DNA:Cholera
molecule/bacterial chromosome, genetic
Rod
shaped bacterium
information;
Causes dehydration through diarrhoea (5lts/day)

F
E

A
B

Ingested through
Contaminated water
Food (shellfish, bottom dwellers where sewage leakage
has occurred) or preparation by infected person.
Affects body through a toxin it produces. Toxin only
affects the upper regions of the small intestine as this
is the only region with membrane receptors that
complement the toxin.
Mechanism of infection
Many of the organisms are destroyed by the stomach acid
but those that survive pass into the small intestine, and
using flagella in a corkscrew motion to get through the
mucus layer in upper region of the small intestine
(duodenum) and anchor itself.
Bacteria produce an exotoxin (protein secreted by
microbes), that binds to specific receptors on the cell
surface membrane (receptors located only in the upper
region of the small intestine).
Toxin causes chlorine ion channels to open and chlorine
ions flood the intestinal lumen (other ions enter like
sodium and potassium)
Excess ions in the lumen, lowers the water potential (more
negative) so water leaves the cells by osmosis. Ions enter
the cells to replace those lost and along with the loss of
water the cells water potential becomes more negative than
the blood so water leaves blood leading to dehydration.
[An endotoxin is not secreted, but is a component of the
bacteria released when they are lysed]
How the distribution of cell membranes in a prokaryotic cell differs from that in a cell from eukaryotic.
Absence of nuclear membrane, No membrane bounded organelles; Such as mitochondria/chloroplast/vacuole/lysosome; No
reticulum/Golgi; there are mesosomes in prokaryotes;

Difference between an
endotoxin and an exotoxin.
Endotoxins produced from the
breakdown of bacteria (cell
walls);
exotoxins secreted (from living
cells)
Endotoxins are
lipopolysaccharides;
Treating effects of cholera
exotoxins
are protein;
Oral rehydration
therapy (ORT)
replaces lost water and salts;

Mechanism
1. Contains glucose/starch/
sugar;
2. Sodium/salt;
3. makes use of Co-transport
protein
4. Sodium and glucose taken up
(from lumen by co-transport
protein);
5. Lowers water potential in
cells/ increases water
22 potential
gradient;
6. Watersystems/endoplasmic
taken up by osmosis
membrane

How V.cholerae causes Diarrhoea

1. The cholera bacterium adheres to the epithelium and secretes the cholera
toxin CT. CT enters the epithelial cells and activates a chloride ion channel in the
cell membrane.
2. This causes chloride ions to diffuse out of the cells into the lumen.
3. This lowers the water potential in the lumen of the gut.
4. So water is lost from cells to the lumen by osmosis, producing diarrhoea and
dehydration.

Treatment for Diarrhoea

The treatment for diarrhoea was revolutionised in the 1960s, with the development of oral
rehydration therapy (ORT). This simple and cheap treatment consists of drinking an oral
rehydration solution (ORS) of glucose and salt (NaCl), and sometimes other ions like potassium
and bicarbonate. ORT makes use of the sodium-glucose co-transporter protein that normally
absorbs glucose into the ileum epithelial cells.
1. If both Na+ and glucose are present in the lumen, they bind to the sodium-glucose cotransporter protein. Transport only works if both molecules are present, which is why salt alone
is not an effective treatment. ORS contain equimolar concentrations of glucose and salt.
2. The transporter protein carries the Na+ and glucose into the cell, down their concentration
gradients.
3. This lowers the water potential inside the epithelial cells. So water diffuses from the lumen into
the epithelial cells by osmosis, rehydrating cells and reducing diarrhoea.

23

Cell fractionation: Separating different parts and

organelles of a cell, so that they can be studied in
detail. The most common method of fractionating cells
is to use differential centrifugation.
Organelles are separated based on different densities
There are 3 key stages
1) Homogenisation
2) Filtration
3) Centrifugation
Homogenisation: Pestle mortar (using and as abrasive
component)
In a blender
This breaks open cells. Done in a
Buffered solution: Preventing pH changes that may
damage the organelle by denaturing enzymes or proteins
affecting function
Isotonic: prevent osmotic movement where swelling of
organelle may cause lysis or shrinkage of organelle both
resulting in destruction of natural function
Cold (50C): This reduces enzyme activity and will prevent
autolysis (self-destruction) of the organelle.
2) Filtration: removes any debris (unbroken cells,
cartilage, and sand). This will prevent contamination of the
pellets resulting from centrifugation
3) Centrifugation: Homogenate (solution of organelles) is
centrifuged at different speeds. Low speeds will cause more
dense organelles to separate and higher speeds will cause
least dense organelles to sediment.

Describe how you would obtain a

sample of undamaged
chloroplasts from leaves.
1. Chop up leaves in a.
2. Cold: reduces enzyme activity
3. Buffered solution: prevents pH
changes affecting enzymes
4. Isotonic: prevents osmosis and
possible lysis or shrinkage of
organelles
5. Filter and centrifuge filtrate
6. Centrifuge supernatant
7. at higher speed;
8. Chloroplasts in (second)
pellet;
Key to remember you must
separate organelles in order,
most dense first then least
dense, if you try and jump to a
particular stage the sample will
be contaminated

After spinning the pellet of organelle is at the bottom the

remaining solution is called the supernatant and poured
(decanted) for centrifugation.
Most dense organelle Nucleus
Mitochondria/Chloroplasts
ER, Golgi, Lysosomes
Least dense organelle Ribosomes
80s

in

eukaryotic

cells will

sediment

before

24

70s in

The rate at which a substance can diffuse is given by Fick's law:

From Fick's law we can predict that, in order to support a fast rate of diffusion, exchange surfaces must
have:
1) A large surface area 2) a small distance 3) a mechanism to maintain a high concentration gradient across
the gas exchange surface.

A thin surface and a diffusion gradient are both

features of gas exchange surfaces. Describe how
these are achieved at the gas exchange surfaces of
a mammal;
Wall of alveoli / capillaries have single epithelial layer/
Alveoli and capillaries are close together;
the epithelium is flattened (squamous)
Ventilation maintains high O2/low CO2 concentration(in
alveoli);
blood flow/circulation maintains high CO2 / low O2

Describe and explain how the structure of the mammalian

breathing system and red blood cells enables efficient
uptake and transport of oxygen.
Alveoli provide a large surface area;
Walls of alveoli/capillary are thin (single layer of
flattened/squamous epithelial cells) to provide a short diffusion
pathway;
Capillary are close to alveoli provides a short diffusion pathway;
narrow capillaries slows blood flow - more time for diffusion; and
forces close contact between red blood cells and capillary walls
thus reduces diffusion path;
Many blood capillaries provide a large surface area and keeps
oxygen in blood around alveoli low, thus maintains a steep
diffusion gradient
Intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles enable ventilation
(keeps oxygen in alveoli high) to maintain a steep diffusion
wide trachea and branching of bronchi/bronchioles for efficient
flow of air;
cartilage rings keep airways open;
Cell membrane permeable to gases;
Explain how inspiration occurs.
Diaphragm contracts/moves down/
flattens;
External intercostal muscles contract
rib cage upwards and out
Increases volume (of thorax);
Decrease in pressure;
Air moves from high to lower pressure
in lungs
Explain how Expiration occurs
A passive process, where the
external intercostals and the
diaphragm relax.
However in forced expiration, the
internal intercostals muscles are
involved (contracting to pull the ribs
down) and the abdominal muscles

Describe and explain the difference in the

composition of gases in inhaled and exhaled
air.
1 inhaled air contains more oxygen than exhaled
air;
2 inhaled air contains less carbon dioxide than
exhaled air;
3 inhaled air contains less water (vapour);
4 relative amount/percentage of nitrogen also
changes;
5 respiration results in lower blood O2 / higher
blood CO2;
6 oxygen enters blood / carbon dioxide leaves
blood in alveoli;
7 by diffusion;
25
8 water vapour diffuses from moist surface;

Pulmonary Ventilation is the volume air ventilating the lungs each minute. It is
calculated as the product of the ventilation rate and the tidal volume.
0 .5

In s p ira tio n

Pulmonary ventilation = ventilation rate x tidal volume

E x p ira tio n

The ventilation rate can be calculated from the pressure graph by measuring the
time taken for one ventilation cycle and using the formula:

C h a n g e in
lu n g v o lu m e
/ dm 3

Ventilation rate (breaths/minute) = 60 time for 1 cycle

So for diagram shown Ventilation rate = 60 3 = 20
0
0

0 .5

1 .0

1 .5
2 .0
T im e / s
G raph 1

2 .5

3 .0

3 .5

The tidal volume is the normal volume of air breathed in each breath (also called
the breathing depth). It can be measured from the volume graph.
Both the ventilation rate and the tidal volume can be varied by the body. When the
body exercises the pulmonary ventilation can increase so that
Oxygen can diffuse from the air to the blood faster
Carbon dioxide can diffuse from the blood to the air faster
These changes allow aerobic respiration in muscle cells to continue for longer.

26

Asthma is caused by physical factors called allergens in the environment. These allergens include pollen, dust mites
faeces and fur.
These allergens trigger an inflammatory response by the immune system.
White blood cells called mast cells release histamines, which cause the smooth circular muscles of the bronchioles to
contract, narrowing the airways (bronchoconstriction).
The epithelial cells also secrete more mucus, which further blocks the airways.
The constricted bronchioles stimulate wheezing and coughing as the lungs try to loosen the mucus. The constrictions
reduce the tidal volume, so alveolar air is only replaced slowly. The oxygen concentration gradient across the alveolar
epithelium is reduced, so the rate of diffusion in the alveoli is reduced by Ficks law. Less oxygen diffuses into the blood,
so less oxygen is available for cellular respiration throughout the body.
Symptoms of Asthma
Difficulty breathing due to constriction of airways and
mucus build up.
Wheezing due to narrow pathway and sir flowing through
it
Tight feeling in the chest due to constriction of smooth
muscle
Heavy
coughing
obstructions
Describe the transmission
and
courseto
ofremove
infection
of
pulmonary tuberculosis.
1 (Bacteria transmitted in) droplets / aerosol;
2 (Bacteria) engulfed / ingested by phagocytes / macrophages;
3 (Bacteria) encased in named structure e.g. wall / tubercle /
People with emphysema may feel weak and tired. Explain why.
granuloma / nodule;
Alveoli break down: Less surface area for gas exchange
4 (Bacteria) are dormant / not active / not replicating;
Walls thicken (scar tissue): increases diffusion distance
5 If immunosuppressed, bacteria activate / replicate / released;
Loss of elastin (elastic tissue) due to elastase from white blood cells involved:
6 Bacteria destroy alveoli / capillary / epithelial cells;
Alveoli cannot recoil so it is more difficult to expel air Reduced diffusion gradient
7 (Leads to) fibrosis / scar tissue / cavities /calcification;
Less oxygen enters blood and then tissues;
8 (Damage) leads to less diffusion /less surface area / increases
Less respiration / less energy released / less ATP produced;
diffusion distance;
9 (Activation / damage allows bacteria) to enter blood / spreads (to
You can recognise the difference between healthy lung tissue and that with
Chronic
bronchitis
other organs);
emphysema because, with emphysema
Tar from smoking leads to the enlarging of goblet cells and excess
There are a smaller number of alveoli, larger air spaces per alveolus, there are
mucus production. The tar will also destroy or reduce effectiveness of
thicker walls.
the cilia so mucus removal is less effective. This results in heavy
coughing to try and shift the obstruction, heavy coughing can result
Risk increased with.
in damage to the epithelial cells, this can cause scar tissue
Infection e.g. (chronic) bronchitis; heredity;
development and also induce an inflammatory response where even
Industrial pollution - must contain reference to inhalation of particles (dust)
more mucus is produced furthering the obstruction.
Smoking
The trapped mucus increases the susceptibility to chest infections
(mucus traps microbes in the air) which again can result in tissue
damage (microbial activity) and result in immune responses such as
inflammation and mucus production and also the attraction of
phagocytic cells.

Pulmonary fibrosis: when scars form on the epithelia that are damaged,
increasing the diffusion pathway, loss of elasticity in lung tissue, which 27
reduces the
concentration gradient, narrowing of vessels, reducing air flow and concentration
gradient. Results in shortness of breath, dry cough, tiredness (insufficient oxygen
for respiration)

Disease is a general term meaning a disorder of the body.

Diseases can be caused by many different factors:
Infectious Diseases are caused by pathogenic organisms
(usually microbes) living in or on the body and so causing harm
(e.g. cold, TB, AIDS).
Dietary Deficiency Diseases are caused by a lack of
specific nutrients in the diet, e.g. kwashiorkor (protein), scurvy
(vitamin C), and rickets (vitamin D).
Environmental Diseases are caused by non-living factors
in the environment. They include skin cancer (caused by
radiation), lung cancer (caused by smoking), asthma (caused
by dust), pulmonary fibrosis (caused by dust or pollution), and
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (caused by prions).
Social Diseases are caused by human activities and
lifestyle. They include alcoholism, emphysema, coronary heart
disease, anorexia, drug addiction and even accidents.
Ageing Diseases are caused by degeneration of body
tissues and include arthritis, arteriosclerosis and cataracts.
Genetic Diseases are caused by genes inherited from
parents. These are really characteristics that are unusual in the
population and are life-threatening (e.g. muscular dystrophy,
cystic fibrosis, haemophilia).
In fact all diseases are affected by genetics, but these single
gene disorders are governed entirely by the action of a single
allele and are not influenced by any other factor.
A persons lifestyle affects their chances of suffering
from diseases (except the single gene disorders).
Lifestyle factors can include diet, exercise, work
environment, sexual habits, smoking, drinking and
drug-taking. Some of these factors have obvious
association with disease (like smoking), while others
are less obvious (like occupation), but all the factors
have an associated risk.
Different disease have specific risk factors, i.e.
factors that specifically increase the risk of getting
that disease. A few examples are:
Disease
Risk Factors
Lung cancer:
smoking and cleanliness of the
environment.
Skin cancer:
exposure to sunlight and colour
of skin.
CHD:
diet, age, genetics and
exercise.
Diabetes:
genetics diet and exercise.
AIDs:
sexual habits, drug habits and
genetics.
Some of these risk factors are beyond our control,

For a pathogen to cause a disease these steps must take place:

1. The pathogen must be transmitted to the human host (through drinking water,
eating food, breathing aerosol droplets, animal bites, or direct contact)
2. The pathogen must gain entry inside the human body. The human body is
protected by a tough layer of endodermis (skin), but pathogens can enter via cuts in
the skin (e.g. malaria); or the thinner epithelium exchange interfaces, such as the
digestive system (e.g. cholera) or lungs (e.g. tuberculosis).
3. The pathogen must evade the defences of the host. Humans have a range of
defences, such as stomach acid, lysozyme enzymes and the immune system, and
these defences are usually very effective at preventing disease. But it only takes a
few pathogen cells resisting the defences to multiply and cause a disease.
4. The pathogen must harm the host. Pathogens harm their hosts in two ways.
First, by reproducing inside host cells, using up cellular resources and preventing
the cell from carrying out its normal reactions. The microbes then usually burst out
of the host cell, rupturing the cell membrane and killing the cell in the process.
Second, by producing toxins chemicals that interfere with the body's reactions.
These chemicals may inhibit enzymes, bind to receptors, bind to DNA causing
mutations, interfere with synapses and so on.

1) This graph
shows there is
no pattern
between
income and
incidence of
lung cancer

2) This graph
shows a
correlation
between
smoking and
cancer. But it
does not prove
causation as
other factors
can influence
results, age,
diet, and
genetics

3) To show causality
controlled
experiments are
needed. Here
arsenic (component
of cigarette smoke)
inhibits DNA ligase
which repairs
damaged DNA. Thus
in cells this could
lead to cancer, now
we have a
mechanism to
explain graph 2, and
we have evidence
for a causal
relationship
4) There is a
between smoking
correlation between
and cancer.
alcohol and cancer.
Lab studies have not
found a causal link
between the two, so
alcohol is not a risk
factor. The correlation
is indirect, where
heavy drinkers, tend
to be heavy
28 smokers

Defence mechanisms of the body reduce the chance of

entry by a pathogen.
Skin: layer of dead cells acts as a barrier to microorganisms
impregnated with keratin
fatty acids in sebum inhibit growth of microorganisms;
commensal bacteria compete with other microorganisms;
Tears (also saliva ): contain lysozyme; capable of digesting
bacterial cell walls;;
Mucus in respiratory system traps pathogens;
microorganisms are moved up the respiratory tract by cilia and
are swallowed;
killed by acid in the stomach;
Stomach contains hydrochloric acid which destroys bacteria;
Blood
clot prevents
entry;
Describe
phagocytosis.
1. Phagocyte attracted by chemicals
2. (Pathogen) engulfed;
3. Enclosed in vesicle (phagosome)
4. (Vesicle) fuses with lysosome;
(phagolysosome)
5. Lysosome contains hydrolytic enzymes;
6. Pathogen digested/ molecules
hydrolysed;
7. Phagocyte may display some of the
foreign antigen on its cell membrane
becoming an Antigen Presenting Cell
(APC)

The Immune System is the bodys defence system against disease. It

is made up of white blood cells (or leukocytes), which are found in the
blood, lymph, tissue fluid and body cavities (such as alveoli). There
are dozens of different kinds of leukocytes, which fall into four
categories: there are two branches to the immune system
1) Non-specific: chemical and cellular (phagocytosis)
2) Specific: Humoral (B cells) and cell mediated (T cells)
Only vertebrates have a specific immune system. The key
feature of the specific immune system is that it can recognise
foreign cells, those distinct form its own cells. This is called
self/non-self recognition. It can do this because of antigens:
Protein/glycoproteins/lipoproteins that stimulate the immune
response

Antibodies
B lymphocytes make antibodies/immunoglobulins. They
are proteins that bind to specific antigens forming an
antigen-antibody complex
They are 4 polypeptide chains consisting of 2 heavy and 2
light chains, held by disulphide bridges. The constant
region is the same in all immunoglobulins (same amino
acid sequence), but the variable regions vary greatly due
to different amino acid sequences, it is this region that
binds to the antigen.
protein molecules are suited to carry out the role of
antibodies because
A Large variety of different molecules is possible
a variety of shapes can be created;
As the Tertiary shape will vary as the primary sequence
varies;

How antibodies work

1. By binding to antigens on viruses and bacteria they
prevent the viruses or bacteria attaching to cells and
so infecting them.
2. By binding to free toxin proteins they change the
shape of the active region so that these proteins
can no longer take part in the reactions that caused
disease.
3. By linking cells together. Because each antibody
molecule has two antigen-binding sites (one on each
arm of the Y), antibodies can stick cells together into
large clumps. This process, called agglutination,
immobilises viruses and cells, and precipitates soluble
toxins so that they can easily be destroyed by
phagocytes or cytotoxic T-cells. Large antigenantibody complexes also stimulate the

29

Foreign antigens need to be presented on antigen-presenting cells (APC) to initiate the

specific immune response. The most important antigen-presenting cells are
macrophages. Whenever they find a non-self antigen the macrophage ingests the
antigen and its cell by phagocytosis. Some of the antigens pass to the surface of the
macrophage, which thus becomes an antigen-presenting cell. This method of
presenting antigens amplifies the number of foreign antigens in the blood without
increasing the number of pathogens. The macrophage also secretes chemicals to
stimulate the next stage of the immune response clonal selection.
APC interacts with the Helper T-cells (TH cells), and when they binds, the TH cell begins
to secrete chemicals called cytokines which activate T and B lymphocytes to divide
mitosis (clonal selection) and differentiate.
Explain how the body responds both generally and
specifically to pathogens that enter the blood.
Non-specific response
1) Chemical response: Inflammatory response: histamines are
released body temperature increased Interferon production
(details on sheet)
2) Action of phagocytes: detail explained on this sheet
Specific immune response
1) Humoral response involving B cells, T helper release
cytokines to encourage mitosis in B cells forming clones. B
plasma cells produced, these secrete antibodies that.
Agglutinate pathogens making phagocytosis more likely and
they can neutralise toxins/pathogens
2) Cell mediated response involving T cells, cytotoxic cells
destroy infected body cells
Memory cells produced;
On further exposure to same microorganism; Antigen
recognised;
Faster response; Greater production of antibodies;

T-lymphocytes differentiate into cytotoxic T cells bind to complementary antigens and

destroy the cells by making pores in them which leads to cell lyses.
Activated B cells differentiate into plasma cells (rich in RER), which secrete antibodies
Some activated B and T cells differentiate into memory cells which remain in the body
for years, they provide the secondary immune response.
The role of B and T cells in the defence of the body against a virus infection.
B lymphocytes produce antibodies/involved in humoral response;
T lymphocytes involved in cell mediated immunity;
Macrophages present antigens;
(specific) B lymphocytes recognise/bind to antigen;
increase in numbers by mitosis;
produce plasma cells (which make antibodies);
antibodies bind to and clump/ agglutinate virus;
st
nd
memory cells produced by 1 exposure/cloned on 2
exposure;
T lymphocytes(helpers) produce lymphokines/chemicals;
which aid B lymphocyte cloning;
encourages phagocytes to engulf clumped virus;
killer T cells kill virus infected cells
Inflammation: release chemicals, like

histamines and kinins (cause inflammation

with added effect of attracting phagocytes)
which stimulate:
Vasodilation to increase the flow of blood to
the area, so the area turns red.
Capillary leakage so that phagocytes and
granulocytes can enter the local tissue fluid.
The area swells
Sensory neurone impulses, so the area is
tender or painful.
Blood clotting to seal a wound, so a scab is
formed.
30
Interferon is released form viral infected cells,
stimulating nearby cells to produce chemicals
to prevent the entry of the virus.

Some pathogens antigens remain constant, others develop

new strains with different antigens (as a result of
mutations) thus the memory cells no longer recognises
(compliments) the antigen. These pathogens show
antigenic variability.

Give two ways in which

passive immunity differs from
active immunity.
Antibodies not produced by
body;
No memory cells;
Short-term / not lifelong;
Antibodies (or context
established) donated by mother /
across placenta / in milk;

31

What is vaccination?
Injection of antigens/toxins/dead weakened pathogens
(Antigen from) attenuated microorganism/non-virulent
microorganisms/dead
microorganisms/isolated from microorganism;
Stimulates the formation of memory cells;

Immunisation programmes may use either attenuated or dead

microorganisms. Suggest why there might be problems for the patient
when using these vaccines.
Process of killing organisms might not be 100% efficient;
live organisms might give rise to full-blown disease;
attenuated organisms are non-virulent;
but might mutate to virulent forms;
immunity can decline - booster injections required;
named side effects, eg allergies;
less effective due to changed antigens;

Methods used to prepare vaccines.

Killed microorganism
Modified toxin
Attenuated/heat treated/UV treated microorganism
genetically engineered antigens
isolated antigen
Explain how a host is made less susceptible by the use of
vaccination.
Nature of vaccine e.g. attenuated strain or isolated antigen or toxin
vaccine introduces antigen into host
stimulates lymphocytes;
memory cells produced;
if host subsequently meets active pathogen
production of same (B/T) lymphocytes;
antibodies and cytotoxic cell production can occur in large number s
rapidly
Pathogen destroyed before it can affect host;

Give two ways in which passive immunity differs from active

immunity.
Antibodies not produced by body;
No memory cells;
Short-term / not lifelong;
Antibodies (or context established) donated by mother /across placenta / in
milk;

If enough people are vaccinated in a population (typically 85-95%), then even the few
that are not, or cannot be, vaccinated are protected by herd immunity, since there
and
are not enough hosts for the pathogen to survive and reproduce.

Vaccines protect against disease by stimulating the production

of memory cells.
Describe how memory cells protect the body from disease.
On further exposure to same microorganism;
Antigen recognised;
Faster response;
Greater production of antibodies;
Explain why it is necessary to vaccinate elderly against the flu
every year.
Influenza virus mutates;
different strains / different - shaped antigen; shows antigenic variability
mutant forms will not be recognised by lymphocytes memory cells
immune system; accept elderly have weaker immune system
Suggest two reasons why parents may decide against
vaccination for their children.
consider vaccines to be unsafe / have side effects / damage immune
system;
consider natural immunity to be more effective; allow in (a) if not here
religious / ethical objections qualified e.g. objections to use of fetal /
animal tissue;

Success of vaccination programmes

- Able to provide for all the vulnerable groups and at the
same time to interrupt the transmission
- Few (if any) side effects
- Easy to produce and store
Why does it not eliminate disease?
Not all people will develop immunity
Attenuated antigen mutates (antigenic variability)
32
Not all people want to get the vaccine
Booster injections may be required

vaccinated/Ref. to Head Effect

Monoclonal Antibodies
The unique tertiary structure of each antibody protein allows it to bind
specifically and tightly to one particular antigen. Scientists quickly realised
that the remarkable specific binding property of antibody proteins in vivo
would make them very useful tools in medicine and research in vitro. [In vivo
means in life, i.e. in a living organism; and in vitro means in glass, i.e. in
a test tube.] Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies of one particular shape
made by a clone of a single B-lymphocyte.
Making Monoclonal Antibodies
Antibody proteins are far too complicated to be synthesised chemically in
vitro: they have to be made by living cells. In 1975 Kohler and Milstein
developed a method to make monoclonal antibody proteins using mice.
1. Inject a mouse with the antigen protein that you want antibodies for. The
mouse will show a primary immune response and make a clone army of Blymphocytes with antibodies specific for that antigen.
2. After a few days, extract B-lymphocyte cells from the rabbits blood. The
blood contains a mixture of thousands of different B-cells, each making their
own specific antibodies, so we need to isolate the B-cell we want. Dilute the
blood cells into hundreds of wells in an immunoassay plate, so that there is
just one cell per well. The cells multiply in their wells and secrete antibodies
a different antibody in each well.
3. Test each well for production of the antibody required and row the B-cells
from that well in a culture flask, where they multiply by mitosis, making
millions of identical cloned cells, each secreting identical antibodies
monoclonal antibodies.

Using Monoclonal Antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies have many uses, but they are all based on the same
principle. If monoclonal antibodies are mixed with a sample containing a
mixture of proteins, the antibodies will bind specifically and tightly to only one
protein in the sample.

The monoclonal antibodies can have another molecule chemically

attached to the constant region, which can make the antibody
coloured, or fluorescent, or attach it to a surface. This allows the
target protein to be visualised.
Some uses of monoclonal antibodies include:
Antibodies can be used as a magic bullet to target drugs to one
specific cell type in the body. Monoclonal antibodies are made to an
antigen only found on the target cell, and the drug is bound to the
constant region of the antibody. The antibody/drug complex is then
be injected into the patient and the antibody will ensure that the
agent is carried only to the target cells and nowhere else.
Antibodies can be made to target a toxic agent (e.g. a radioactive
substance) to cancer cells and nowhere else in the body.
Antibodies to the protein hormone hCG, produced in pregnancy, are
bound to a test strip and used to detect the presence of hCG in urine
in a pregnancy test strip.
Antibodies are used to detect the presence of specific proteins in
very low concentrations in the ELISA assay.
Fluorescent antibodies are used to stain particular cell organelles in
microscope slides.
Antibodies can be used directly in passive immunity to help the
body's normal immune response to a serious infection
What is a monoclonal
antibody
A hybrid cell from tumour
(cancerous, myeloma) and Blymphocyte called a hybridoma
it produces the same antibodies
as it is derived from 33
one type of
plasma cell;
this means the antibodies are
specific (complementary) to fits
only one antigen

34

35

36

Difference between the glucose

molecules is the orientation of the OH
group at C1.

Cellulose structure and function

Basic structure of glycogen

Is a polymer of beta glucose.

Condensation polymerisation occurs
The monomers are held by1,4 glycosidic
bonds.
Alternate beta glucose molecules are
inverted
The chain is long and straight
Adjacent chains can be held together by Hbonds

Glycogen is similar to amylopectin.

This forms micro-fibrils which are rigid and

can link to form cellulose fibres
Cellulose is a component of the cell wall
Its strength means it can resist osmotic
pressure

It is polymer of (1-4) alpha glucose

with 9% (1-6) branches, though more
than starch. Because it is so highly
branched, it can be mobilised
(broken down by glycogen
phosphorylase to produce glucose
for energy) very quickly, reflects the
grater metabolic demands of animal
over plant
Animals storage polysaccharide
Found mainly in muscle and liver.

Starch/Glycogen vs Cellulose
Starch/Glycogen
1. (1,4 and) 1,6 bonds/contains
1,6 bonds /branching
2. All glucoses/ monomers same
way up
3. Helix/coiled/compact
4. Alpha glucose
5. No (micro/macro) fibrils/fibres

Basic structure of starch

Storage polysaccharide
Insoluble (no effect on water
potential and thus osmotically
inactive)
Not a pure substance but a mixture
of
Amylose: a chain of alpha glucose
held by 1,4 glycosidic bonds. It
forms a helix, held by H bonds
within the chain
Amylopectin: a polymer of alpha
glucose with 1,4 glycosidic bonds
and a small number of 1,6 branches.
This gives it an open structure and
the branches are quickly hydrolysed

Celluose
1. 1,4 bonds / no 1,6 bonds /
unbranched / straight;
2. Alternate glucoses/monomers
upside down;
3. Straight;
4. Beta glucose;
5. Micro/macro fibrils/fibres;

Starch: structure for function

Role = storage
Features: Insoluble stays in cell
Features: Osmotically inactive cell does
not absorb water
Feature: good respiratory substrate
provides many glucose molecules on
hydrolysis
Feature: Amylose is Coiled lots of glucose
in a small space
37
Feature: amylopectin branched is rapidly
hydrolysed to glucose because enzymes can
begin to operate on all brnaches

Q. Describe how the structure of a chloroplast is adapted to its function in

photosynthesis.
Membrane is permeable to gases
Disc shape gives a large surface area for absorption of light and gas
Contains chlorophyll to absorb light
Contains a range of pigments to increase the range of wavelengths that can be absorbed
Stacking of the thylakoids (grana) maximises light absorption
Stroma contains enzymes for the reactions of photosynthesis
Stroma contains ribosomes (70s) and DNA for making enzymes needed in photosynthesis

Q. Photosynthesis generally takes place

in a leaf. Describe how the leaf is
adapted to allow this process to occur
effectively.
Large surface area to collect solar energy;
transparent nature of cuticle to allow light
penetration;
position of chlorophyll to trap light;
stomata to allow exchange of gases;
thin / max. surface area to volume ratio for
diffusion of gases;
spongy mesophyll / air spaces for carbon
dioxide store;

Describe how the structure of xylem

is related to its function.
Vessels;
Have no end walls / hollow / no
cytoplasm;
Allows unrestricted flow of water.
Lignification;
Provides support / strength /
impermeability;
Pits allow lateral transport;
Tracheids with porous end walls.

Q. Palisade cells are the main site of

photosynthesis. Explain one way in
which a palisade cell is adapted for
photosynthesis. Find a detailed
diagram of the palisade cell to
include the typical organelles of a
eukaryotic cell.
Contains many chloroplasts thus lots of
chlorophyll:
To trap or absorb light (energy);
Elongated cells with long axis
perpendicular to the surface:
Light has a longer pathway allowing
maximum light absorption / light
penetration;
Chloroplasts move;
To trap or absorb light (energy)
Range of pigments;
Can absorb a range of wavelengths /
colours / for max light absorption;
Large S.A. or cell wall feature e.g. thin /
permeable;
For (rapid) CO2 absorption;

38

Haemoglobin (Hb): Hb is a molecule that transports oxygen. It has a quaternary structure (association of 4 polypeptides there are two
types of polypeptide chains, 2 alpha and 2 beta chains). Each polypeptide chain is associated with a haem prosthetic group that contains
a ferrous group(Fe++) and each can bind one oxygen molecule. So one Hb molecule can carry 4 oxygen molecules forming
oxyhaemoglobin
Hb + 4O2 HbO8 (deoxyhaemoglobin is a different colour to oxyhaemoglobin and so the % saturation can be measured with a
colorimeter). Oxygen drives the process to the right, and H+ drives it to the left.

The oxygen dissociation curve: shows the change in the affinity of Hb for oxygen at different PPO 2.
Affinity = the tendency for Hb to bind oxygen, this changes with pH, temperature (similar effect to
pH, associated with respiration which raises temp) and PPO2.
Effect of PPO2
At high PPO2 the percentage saturation is very, around 95% and at low PPO2 the percentage
saturation is low.
So Hb coming from the lungs where PPO2 is high is heavily saturated with oxygen. As it reaches the
tissues where respiration is occurring at PPO2 is low it is only about 50% saturated.
Thus Hb coming from the lungs is carrying a lot of oxygen, and as it reaches the tissues it releases
this oxygen, which is then used for respiration

The effect of pH
Hb is even better at releasing O2 in areas where it is
required than the neutral pH graph suggests.
The graph shows the effect of low pH in reducing the
affinity of Hb for oxygen. A more acidic environment
reduces the % saturation at all PPO2. More oxygen is
unloaded at the same PPO2.this is exactly what is
needed because, where a lot of CO2 is being produced,
a lot of respiration is occurring and thus the demand
for oxygen is higher.
The shift in the curve is called the Bohr Effect. So in
fact, in normal respiring tissues the saturation is not
50% but 20-25%.

The S-shaped curve is explained by the behaviour of Hb. It shows cooperative bonding, its affinity
for oxygen changes as the amount of oxygen bound changes. The addition of the first oxygen is
difficult, but once bound, it changes the shape of the Hb molecules making it easier for the 2 nd and
3rd to bind, it is harder for the fourth.
This behaviour is reflected in the curve. The curve is quite shallow up to around 2kPa, where only
one oxygen molecule sis bound, then the curve rises steeply as the 2nd and 3rd oxygen bind, here
Describe
howinHb
normally
oxygenin
in% saturation.
small changes
PPO
causes loads
large changes
2
the lungs and unloads oxygen in tissues.
Hb has a high affinity and loads O2 in high PPO2
Oxygen diffuses into the cell
Attaches to the iron containing haem group
Becomes saturated with O2
Oxyhaemoglobin forms
Hb unloads oxygen in low PPO2
This arises in actively respiring tissues which use
O2
39
Carbon Dioxide shifts dissociation curve to right
Further reduces Hb affinity for O2
So more O2 unloaded and used in respiration

to H+ and HCO3-. Hb combines with the H ions, so has a

buffering effect

Different Haemoglobins
Different animals possess different types of haemoglobin with different oxygen transporting properties. These properties are related to the
animals way of life, so they are an adaptation that helps the animal survive in its environment.

A human foetus makes a different kind

of haemoglobin from an adult. Foetal
haemoglobin has a higher affinity for
oxygen at low partial pressures, so its
oxygen dissociation curve is shifted up.
A developing foetus obtains its
oxygen, not through its lungs, but from
its mothers blood in the placenta. So
this different haemoglobin allows
oxygen to diffuse from the mothers
blood to the foetus, and to be
unloaded in the foetal tissues. Foetal
haemoglobin is gradually replaced by
adult haemoglobin during the first year
after birth.

Lugworms live in the mud in estuaries

and seashores. When the tide is out the
lugworm stays in a burrow filled with
sea water. But the oxygen concentration
in this burrow can fall very low as the
lugworm respires, so the lugworm has
haemoglobin with a very high affinity
for oxygen: its oxygen dissociation
curve is shifted up. This allows the
lugworm to obtain oxygen even when
the PO2 is as low as 2kPa.

Mice lose heat very quickly due to their

large surface area: volume ratio, so they
have a high metabolic rate to generate
more heat. Their tissues therefore have
a constant demand for oxygen for
respiration. The oxygen dissociation
curve for mouse haemoglobin is shifted
down compared to humans, so plenty of
oxygen is unloaded to all tissues all the
time.

Myoglobin is a pigment found in muscles

that are involved in sustained
contractions. . It has a higher affinity for
oxygen than Hb. It can act as an oxygen
store only releasing oxygen when PPo2 is
very low, thus it delays anaerobic
respiration as long as possible
40

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid

A long linear molecule wound around histone proteins to form chromatin. This can be further coiled to form
chromosomes prior to replication. (
DNA is double-stranded, so there are two polynucleotide stands alongside each other. The strands are
antiparallel, i.e. they run in opposite directions.
The two strands are wound round each other to form a double helix
Sugar-phosphate backbone;
It is an organic compound made up of nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group.
There are 4 bases (A, T, C and G)ssociated with DNA (a 5th type U is found in RNA (it replaces T)
specific base-pairing occurs between these bases (AT/ CG);
Two types of bases purines (A + G) or pyrimidines (C, T or U in RNA replaces T)
Purines have a double ring structure and pyrimidines a single ring structure.
bases are held by H bonds
Nucleotides
Have a phosphate group
A sugar component: Two key types, deoxyribose with O missing at C2 and ribose (found in RNA) with a
hydroxyl group (OH) at C2
A nitrogenous base: In DNA there are 4 types, A, T, C and G. A and T are complimentary base pairs and C and
G are complimentary base pairs. In RNA the base T is replaced by U.
In prokaryotic cells: the DNA is smaller, circular and not associated with proteins

How the structure of DNA is related to its function

Sugar - phosphate backbone gives strength;
Long molecule stores large amount of information
Coiling gives compact shape;
Sequence of bases can be in any order and it can encode information
Information can be replicated due to complementary base pairing;
Double helix protects weak hydrogen bonds and prevents molecular damage
Chains held together by weak hydrogen bonds; but many hydrogen bonds together give molecule stability;
Hydrogen bonding allows chains to split/unzips easily for replication or transcription
Double stranded which means that each can act as a template in replication, replication is semi conservative

What are the interesting points about the genetic code?

The code is degenerate, i.e. there is often more than one codon for an amino acid. The degeneracy is on the third base of the codon, which is
therefore less important than the others, this minimises the effect of mutations
20 amino acids and 64 codons so some codon means "start" i.e. the start of the gene sequence. It is AUG, which also codes for methionine.
Thus all proteins start with methionine (although it may be removed later). AUG in the middle of a gene simply codes for methionine.
Three codons mean "stop" i.e. the end of the gene sequence. They do not code for amino acids.
The code is non-overlapping; each base is part of one codon
41
The code is universal: the same sequence of bases code for the same amino acids in most organisms

Proteins are made from amino acids. Polymers formed by condensation

reactions, held by peptide bods.
Different proteins have different numbers and sequences of amino acids
The order of nucleotide bases in a gene that determines this sequence of
amino acids
Each amino acid is coded for by a sequence of 3 bases (triplet/codon)
The genetic code is degenerate meaning there is more than one codon for
most amino acids. For example CCA, CCT, CCC and CCG all code for the
amino acid glycine.
There are 20 amino acids and 64 codons

Genes: short sections of DNA.

They a specific order of bases
that determine the primary
structure of a polypeptide.
Alleles are alternate forms of
a gene

Homologous
chromosomes: two
chromosomes of the
same size and shape,
one originating from
each parent. They
contain the same
genes, but may have
different alleles.

A lot of the DNA in eukaryotes does not code for polypeptides. The
rest, called non-coding DNA, does not form genes. There are two
kinds of non-coding DNA:
Non-coding regions of DNA within a gene are called introns (for
interruption sequences), while the coding parts of DNA are called
exons (for expressed sequences). No one knows what these
introns are for, but they need to be removed before proteins are
made.
Non-coding DNA was original termed junk DNA, but in fact it probably
serves many different functions. Some may be structural, helping to coil
the DNA molecule into chromosomes; some may have a control
function, regulating when genes are expressed; some is involved in
DNA replication; and some contains unused copies of genes.

Non-coding regions of DNA between genes are called satellites.

42 many
Satellite DNA often contain simple base sequences repeated
times (sometimes thousands of times).

Explain how a sequence of DNA is replicated

The process is described as semi-conservative replication, because both strands are used
(as templates); and
(Daughter) DNA has one new strand and one original/parent strand;
Uncoiling of the helix occurs then
Unzipping of the DNA hydrogen bonds broken (DNA helicase)
nucleotides line up to their complementary/specific base pair ( A and T / C and G)
DNA polymerase catalyses the polymerisation of the nucleotides
new complementary strands form and identical DNA molecule produced
Replication is speeded up by occurring at many sites simultaneously, at regions called
replication forks
Mutations: Mutations are changes in genes, which are passed on to
daughter cells. DNA is a very stable molecule, but bases can change when DNA
is being replicated. Normally replication is extremely accurate, and there are even
error-checking procedures in place to ensure accuracy, but very occasionally
mistakes do occur (such as a T-C base pair). So a mutation is a base-pairing

error during DNA replication. Mutagens, UV light, X-rays, High energy

radiation can cause mutations also
A change in a gene could cause a change in the protein encoded by the gene,
and so cause a change in the cell function: Many of the proteins in cells are
enzymes, and most changes in enzymes will stop them working, so a reaction in a
cell doesn't happen,. It's just possible (though unlikely) that a mutation could
make a modified enzyme that actually worked faster than the original enzyme.
This means cell's function could be improved.
How a mutation may cause an inactive enzyme

Mutation (addition, deletion or substitution)

Changes in the sequence of nucleotides/bases
Changed order of amino acids different tertiary structure;
Inactive enzyme if shape of active site is changed
Enzyme-substrate complex does not form
Since mutations change genes, they give rise to new alleles (i.e. different versions
of genes). A cell with the original, functional gene has one allele, while a cell with
a mutated, non-functional version of the same gene has a different allele..

43

This replication mechanism is sometimes called semi-conservative replication, because each new DNA molecule contains one new strand and one old strand.
Alternative theories suggested that a "photocopy" of the original DNA could be made, leaving the original DNA conserved (conservative replication), or the
old DNA molecule could be dispersed randomly in the two copies (dispersive replication).
The evidence for the semi-conservative method came from an elegant experiment performed in 1958 by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl

44

If replication was
conservative then the
results for generation 1
would have given one
band in the original
position and another
band higher up made
form only the lighter
isotope.
The results show the
new DNA is
intermediate to the
control and the
original, so a hybrid is
indicated, however it
could be dispersive
The second generation
disproves dispersive
replication as we
would get a single
wide band as each
band would be a mix
of both isotopes. We
get two distinct bands
as shown
As generations
increase the proportion
of N14 increases

45

Variation is the differences that exist between species and within species. It
can be a result of
Genetic factors:
Independent assortment of chromosomes in meiosis I and chromatids in
meiosis II.
Crossing over of genetic information during meiosis I.
Random fertilisation
Environmental factors: exercise, light, oxygen, nutrients, pH depending on
whether it is plant or animals.
Combination of both genes and environment
Mutations causes changes in the DNA
Characteristics that are susceptible to environment are usually controlled by a
number of gene, polygenic, height and mass. These form a continuum
Characteristics that are not influenced by environment are usually controlled
by a single gene and give rise to discrete variation, like Blood group.
Meiosis halves the chromosomes number so that in fertilisation the diploid number will be
restored. This is essential so the chromosome number remains constant generation to generation.
Meiosis introduces variation within a species and this is key to the survival of the organisms
The basics of the process
DNA replication (during interphase) and 2 cell divisions that result in 4 unique haploid daughter cells
Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes pair up (bivalents),
Crossing over can occur: equivalent portions of chromatids are exchanged giving new combination of
alleles. The point of cross over is called the chiasma. There can be numerous chiasma in one bivalent
Independent assortment occurs, where the arrangement of the bivalents in metaphase is random.
The chromosomes are separated to the poles of the cell by contraction of spindle fibres
Meiosis II: the sister chromatids are separated.

The key points in each stage of cell division are

Interphase: 90% of the cell cycle. Cells get bigger,
increase in number of organelles, cytoplasm volume,
cell mass, protein synthesis Like histones) and of
course DNA replication, increase in AYP stores
Prophase: chromosomes condensed and become
visible, nuclear envelope breaks down, nucleolus
breaks down

Metaphase: chromosomes arrange themselves at

the cell equator attaching to spindle fibres by their
centromere
Anapahse: Separation of bivalents in meiosis I/sister
chromatids in meiosis II and mitosis, to the poles of
the cell along spindle fibres
Telophase: Nuclear envelope reforms, spindles break
down, chromosomes uncoil, cytokinesis occurs, were
cells split

Describe what happens to chromosomes

in meiosis. (6)
1. Chromatin condenses and Chromosomes
are visible
2. Chromosomes associate in homologous
pairs (bivalents)
3. Chiasma form and Crossing-over occurs
4. Chromosomes join to spindle fibres
5. By their centromere
6. At equator (middle of cell) independent
46
assortment creates genetic variation
7. Homologous chromosomes move to
opposite poles
nd
8. Chromatids are separated in 2
division
again this is random assortment depending on

47

Cancer cells are characterised by

High rate of division
Ability to separate form adjacent cells
Ability to migrate to other tissues (metastasis)
Cancer develops due to an accumulation of
mutations to genes which disrupts normal cell
processes
Cell growth and division is controlled by genes,
like proto-oncogenes that regulate cell growth and
may exert their effect in a variety of ways
producing proteins like, growth factors and
regulators of replication.

Cell Cycle is subdivided into

A second set of genes called tumour suppressor

genes
prevent
the over
expression
of protoCell
division
occurs
at 12
and 24 hours.
DNA
oncogenes
replication occurs 6-9 and 18-21 hours

Describe the behaviour of

chromosomes during mitosis and
If mutations occur in the genes that regulate cell
Interphase: which is further categorised as
how this results in two genetically
Growth 1 (G1): cell grows, protein synthesis
identical cells. (7)
division, then cells can grow out of control,
occurs, organelles replicated
1 chromosomes condense;
continuing to divide and forming a tumour. Cancer
Synthesis (S): DNA replication and association
2 chromosomes appear with two
is a tumour
that
invades
surrounding
tissue.
Calculating
the time
spent
in a phase
of the cell
cycle.
with histone proteins
identical chromatids (due to replication);
Growth 2 (G2): ATP stores increased
3 chromosomes move to equator of the
Describe how altered DNA
may lead to
(No ofcancer.
cells in that phase total No of cells) Time for 1
cell;
What
is a carcinogen: an agent that can cause
thetodevelopment
of cancer
complete cycle
Overall
in interphase
4 attach
individual spindle
fibres by
Increase in volume of cell, increase in mass
centromere;
Cancer develops due to an accumulation of
Mutagens:
light, X-rays, Gamma rays, Uranium
increase
Increase
in number UV
of organelles
5 spindleare,
fibres
contractthe
andchances of
mutations
mutations
synthesis
of protein
centromeres divide
A mutation is a change in the base sequence in
DNA replication
6 (sister) chromatids move to opposite
the DNA
ATP stores
increased
A tumour
is mass of identical cells (clones) poles
formed by uncontrolled cell division.
These mutation become more likely when
7 each pole identical copies of each
exposed to mutagens like UV, x-ray
MitoticAphase,
consisting
off
chromosome;
benign tumour grows slowly, remains encased in a capsule and does not spread
Cell cycle is controlled by a number of genes
8
nuclear
envelope
forms
around
each
far. Benign
tumourscondense;
are usually harmless (e.g. warts), though they may cause harm
Prophase
chromosomes
group of chromosomes at each pole;
Mutations must arise in these different genes
by pressing on blood vessels or other tissues. They can often be treated easily by
Metaphase chromosomes move to equator or
Proto-oncogenes are involved in cell growth and
surgery or radiation.
centre of cell attach to spindle;
if they mutate to form oncogenes then cell
Importance of mitosis
division may begin to occur at a higher rate and
Anaphase

chromatids
separate/centromeres
A malignant tumour grows quickly and
spreads
throughout
the surrounding tissue,
1. Growth
/ increase
in cell
a tumour can develop
divide;affecting its normal function and so causing
harm (e.g. lung cancer reduces elasticity
number;
If tumour suppressor genes produce proteins that
of alveoli).
These tumours
to treat
damaging
the whole
Telophase
Chromosomes
uncoil are more difficult
2. Replace
cellswithout
/ repair tissue
/
48
inhibit cell division
tissue.
organs
/body;
Followed by cytokinesis (cell division)
A mutation here results in proteins that do not
3. Genetically identical cells;
function
4. Asexual
/cloning;
A metastasis is a tumour that has spread
to thereproduction
bloodstream
or lymphatic system

and so can spread to other parts of the body, causing secondary tumours there.

Cell division is not inhibited

A tumour develops

49

Species Diversity and human influence on diversity

A community: all the organisms living in a habitat
Species diversity: the variety of species in the community
Species diversity tell us: it tells us about the complexity, quality and stability of an ecosystem
Sampling techniques to measure species diversity
Quadrats: area divided into a grid, random numbers are generated 9avoid bias) that act as co-ordinates where the quadrats will be placed. A large number of quadrats must be used; this allows it
to be representative of the area and allows patterns to be established (random, uniform clustered distribution) also allows statistical analysis to be carried out. The percentage cover, abundance or
number of different species can be calculated
Transects: are used when there is an environmental gradient. A line or belt transect can be used. Belt transects give greater detail, using quadrats to measure abundance at each interval. Intervals
may be required and the size of the interval will be determined by the distance being sampled
N = total number of organisms
of all species
Q. What is the difference between species richness and abundance?
Species richness is the number of different species in a sample
Abundance is the number of each species present
n = total number of
organisms of each species
To best measure diversity we should account for both richness and abundance. The Simpson index of diversity does this. The formula is.

Agricultural practices (intensive farming) why things are done and the consequences
of these processes
Agriculture
Selective breeding: done to select for certain favourable
characteristics reduces genetic diversity.
Destruction of hedgerows: Makes large farms with large fields are
cheaper and more efficient to run by easing the moving machinery
and harvesting. Hedgerows provide habitats for at least 30 species
of trees and shrubs, 65 species of nesting birds, 1500 species of
insects and 600 species of wildflowers. These in turn provide food
for small mammals. Hedgerows also act as wildlife corridors,
allowing animals to move safely between woodlands.
Monoculture: increases the productivity by growing the best crops,
which can be sowed and harvested quickly using dedicated
machinery. This increases yield and reduces labour costs. It reduces
genetic diversity and renders all crops in a region susceptible to
disease. Reduces animal species diversity, because there are few
niches.
Fertilisers: maintain soil fertility, but they can pollute surrounding
groundwater causing eutrophication and killing aquatic animals.
Pesticides: are sprayed on crops to prevent attack by insects and
other invertebrate animals, but many pesticides have a broad
spectrum, killing a wide range of animals and so reducing diversity.
Herbicides: kill competing plants (weeds) that might reduce crop
yield.

The Two main reasons humans clear forests are:

To use the land for agriculture, housing, mining or reservoirs
To use the timber for fuel, charcoal, paper or building materials.
Forests have a high biodiversity because a mature forest has many different
species of plants in several layers; each adapted to their own conditions of
light and nutrient availability. The different plants have different animals
feeding on them and living in them; and the different primary consumers
have different secondary consumers feeding on the. So forests contain
complex food webs with high diversity.
By contrast, a field of crops has very low diversity with very few plants
(often just the crop and a few weeds) and so few animals. Deforestation
therefore reduces biodiversity.

As the diagram shows, forests have a deeper and more extensive root system, so binding
the soil together.
50
Without this root system, soils can be eroded, leading to desertification (fertile land
becomes desert). Forests also have a high productivity: i.e. there is a lot of plant material
produced per square meter of land, and a lot of photosynthesis takes place. So deforestation
reduces the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and so increases
the greenhouse effect and global warming.

Genetic diversity:
Caused by
1) Environment: factors affecting plants and animals need to be considered. Characteristics controlled by many genes (polygenic) are most susceptible to
environmental influence). Characteristics controlled by single genes are not influenced by the environment.
2) The genes we inherit: we inherit our genes from parents in the sperm and egg during sexual reproduction. These gametes are formed by meiosis; this
can cause variation by.crossing over and independent assortment. Sexual reproduction involves the random fusion of gametes. Mutations can also
result in variation

The founder effect occurs when a small number of individuals colonise a new
habitat and start a new, isolated population. Since the few individuals will only
have a small range of alleles between them, the founder effect is an example
of a genetic bottleneck, and is sometimes called a colonisation bottleneck.
These modern populations will have low genetic diversity, reflecting the small
range of alleles in the small founding population. In extreme cases a founding
population can be as small as a single pregnant female animal or a single
plant seed.
Advantages of selective breeding:
Used to produce high yielding domestic plants and animals
Reliable and cheap source of food is established as higher yields can be obtained
The standard of living has been raised

A genetic bottleneck happens when a population is drastically reduced

in size due to a natural catastrophe. The few individuals left will only
have a small range of alleles between them, so if they reproduce and
the population increases again there will be reduced genetic diversity.
Many of the original variety of alleles will have been lost in individuals
who didnt survive.

Selective breeding
Selective breeding, or artificial selection, means the
controlled breeding of animals or plants by humans
so that only individuals with certain characteristics
are allowed to reproduce. Since these characteristics
are (at least partly) genetically controlled, this
means selecting certain alleles and rejecting others,
so the genetic diversity of these animals and plants
is reduced.

Disadvantages/ethics of selective breeding

Do animals have value or are they solely for human usefulness
What features do we select for?
Should humans decide what is appealing in animals?
Animal welfare must be considered, for example, humans select animals that grow quickly
(leads to high infection risk and joint problems) and that are better suited to living in sheds
than open fields which is their natural habitat
Reduction in genetic variation (genetic uniformity) makes animals vulnerable mass declines
in numbers
51
Loss of alleles that may be beneficial to humans in the future
Lower resistance to disease
Decreased fertility
Development of physical problems in animals that would normally be selected against in the

So the rate of exchange of substances therefore

depends on the organism's surface area that is in
contact with the surroundings. As organisms get
bigger their volume increases at a greater rate
than the surface area able to supply it. So as
organisms get bigger their surface area: volume
ratio gets smaller. To maximise their rate of gas
exchange multicellular organisms have
developed particular body shapes to increase
their surface area: volume ratio.
The openings of the tracheae (spiracles)
have valves which can open and close. When
open water loss is possible and they are
when closed gas exchange is not possible.
The opening of the valves is carbon
dioxide sensitive, so at rest they will
remain closed until a critical level of
How the gas exchange system of an insect is efficient
carbon dioxide is reached. When active (in
The high number of tracheoles and the high degree flight) they will open regularly as carbon
of branching results in a large surface area for gas dioxide is being produced in respiration. The
exchange.
valves can open independently. Tracheal
The ends of the tracheoles penetrate deep into the system relies mainly on diffusion so limits the
muscle and no cell is far away from a source of oxygen
size
of thehow
insects.
Explain
the gills of a fish are
The ends of the tracheoles are fluid filled and this
adapted
to
form
a specialised exchange
gives the insect some control over the rate of gas
surface.
exchange. In high activity respiration increases,
Structure of filaments with a large number of
oxygen is not sufficient lactic acid will begin to build up,
lamellae; and secondary lamella provide a
lowering the water potential of the tissues, so fluid is
large surface area for exchange
drawn out of the tracheoles and this increases the
The lamellae have a thin surface, a single
surface area for gas exchange, so diffusion is faster.
layer of flattened epithelial cells provide a
How a fish ventilates the
short distance between water and blood /
gills
short diffusion pathway
Mouth opens, whilst
Counter-current flow of water and blood
opercular valve shuts;
across lamella
The floor of mouth lowers
maintains a diffusion gradient along length of
Volume increases and
lamellae and prevents oxygen concentrations
pressure lowers so water
reaching equilibrium;
Mouth closes, opercular valve
Ventilation mechanism in producing water
opens
flow over gills and circulation of blood
floor raised results in
maintains a diffusion gradient.
increased pressure due to
decreased
volume;
The
difference in oxygen concentration between he water and
High pressure
water by
blood forces
is maintained
over gills;
Fish has ventilation system which replaces water, which is high
in oxygen
52
The circulatory system brings in blood with low concentration of
oxygen and removes oxygenated blood Water flows in opposite
direction to blood across (gill) lamellae; so difference in
concentration maintained and Diffusion occurs over full length

Gas exchange occurs by Diffusion via stomata and air spaces. The
spongy mesophyll has large air spaces to facilitate faster diffusion, the
cell walls are thin to give a short diffusion pathway, there is a large
surface area to volume ratio, and the palisade cells are cylindrical in shape
so that even when close packed air spaces remain for gas diffusion.

Gas exchange system of mammals adaptations

Large surface area
Wall of alveoli and capillaries have single epithelial layer
epithelium flattened (squamous)
Alveoli and capillaries close together
all give a short diffusion pathway
Ventilation maintains high O2/low CO2 concentration (in alveoli)
blood flow/circulation maintains high CO2 /low O2 concentration(in blood)
Steep diffusion gradient
Narrow capillaries slow blood flow - more time for diffusion;
and the close contact between cells and capillary walls reduces diffusion path;

53

The hydrostatic pressure decreases from the arterial end to

the venule end due to
Frictional force (resistance) of capillary the capillary walls
loss of fluid (not all (filtered) fluid is returned, some drains to lymph)

There is a net loss

of water from a
capillary at the
arterial end
because
At the arterial end
the hydrostatic
pressure is greater
than pressure of
water potential
Oedema (build-up of tissue fluid)

How tissue fluid is formed and returned

to circulation
High hydrostatic pressure of blood high at
arterial end of capillary
Forces fluid out of the capillary
Plasma proteins are too large to leave the
capillary and remain
The water potential in the capillary becomes
more negative than the surrounding tissue
fluid
Water moves back into the capillary at the
venous end
By osmosis
Lymph system collects any excess tissue fluid;
Returns the fluid to the circulatory system link
at the vena cava/

Lack of protein in the diet (less plasma proteins so the

osmotic potential of the blood is not as effective (does
not become as negative in relation to the tissue fluid)
Raised blood pressure will increase the hydrostatic
pressure further than usual so more tissue fluid
generated than normal
Infection (histamine), causes capillaries to dilate so
more permeable than usual proteins may leak out and
thus the water potential at the venous end is not as
negative so less water absorbed by osmosis
Fluid retention (poor kidney function) so raises the
volume of blood plasma and thus the hydrostatic
pressure.
Parasites that develop inside the lymph system blocking
it

The lymphatic system has three different functions:

It drains excess tissue fluid
It absorbs fats from the small intestine, via the lacteals inside each villus.
It is part of the immune system. There are networks of lymph vessels at various places
54 in
the body (such as tonsils and armpits) called lymph nodes where white blood cells develop.
These become swollen if more white blood cells are required to fight an infection.

55

Artery
Thickest wall, enabling it to carry blood at high
pressure / withstand pressure surges;
most elastic tissue, which smooth out
flow/maintains pressure; it can distend when
ventricles contract and can recoil
most muscle which maintains pressure;
muscle in wall to control blood flow, contracts,
vasoconstriction occurs altering blood flow to
organs. The proportion of muscle increases in
the arterioles and elastics tissue declines

The capillary is adapted for the exchange of

substances between blood and the
surrounding tissue.
1. Permeable capillary wall/membrane;
2. Single cell thick/thin walls, reduces diffusion
distance;
3. Flattened (endothelial) cells, reduces diffusion
distance;
4. Fenestrations, allows large molecules through;
5. Small diameter/ narrow, gives a large surface
area to volume/ short diffusion distance;
6. Narrow lumen, reduces flow rate of cells through
the capillary giving more time for diffusion;
7. Red blood cells are in close contact with the
capillary wall give short diffusion distance
Vein
Thin wall does not have to withstand high pressure; so they have
less elastic tissue and muscle tissue, but have a larger lumen to
reduce friction as blood is under lower pressure
Presence of veins to prevent back flow
Blood flow is a result of skeletal muscle contraction, squeezing it
along vessels, residual blood pressure from the heart, negative
pressure form the thorax

56

B lo o d v e s s e l

P r o p e r ty

M e a n d ia m e te r
of vessel
M ean
th ic k n e s s o f
w a ll

A rtery

C a p illa r y

V e in

4 .0 m m

8 .0 m

5 .0 m m

1 .0 m m

0 .5 m

0 .5 m m

R e la t iv e t h ic k n e s s ( s h o w n b y le n g th o f b a r )
T is s u e s
p r e s e n t in
w a ll

E n d o th e liu m
E la s tic tis s u e
M u s c le

E la s tic
fib re s

P e rm e a b ility

M u s c le
fib re s

A o r ta

S m a ll
a rte rie s

A rte rio le s

C a p illa rie s

V e n u le s

V e in s

As you move away from the heart the proportion of

elastic tissues in the vessels decrease and the
proportion of muscle increases. This reflects the
decreasing pressure surges and need for elasticity,
but the increased need for maintaining pressure
and controlling the blood flow to different organs.
Permeability increases at the capillaries, the site of
exchange, they are one cell thick
Veins have a lot less muscle and elastic tissue than
arteries, thinner walls as a consequence. A wider
lumen helps to reduce restriction to flow

57

How water enters and moves across the plant roots to

the xylem.
Water enters root hair cells by osmosis;
because active uptake of mineral ions has created a WP gradient
water moves through the cortex;
by osmosis down a WP gradient
water moves through two paths
1) Symplastic pathway through cell vacuoles and cytoplasm and
membranes
2) Apoplastic pathway through cell walls only
At the endodermis all water enters the symplastic pathway due
to the waterproof layer of the casparian strip
This gives the plant control over the materials entering the
Explain
xylem how the structure of the endodermis affects the
passage of water by this apoplastic pathway.
Casparian bands; (accept ref to suberin)
which are impermeable/waterproof;
lower water potential in the cytoplasm of endodermis cell;
enters symplastic pathway / cytoplasm of cell;
by osmosis;

Describe and explain how water moves via the apoplastic and symplastic
pathways from the soil to the xylem in a root.
Apoplastic Via cell walls
As far as endodermis / Casparian strip / layer of wax;
Caused by transpiration pull;
Cohesion / hydrogen-bonding between water molecules;
Symplastic Through cell surface membrane/ vacuoles membrane;
High to low;
Diffusion / osmosis;
Cell-to-cell via plasmodesmata / via strands of cytoplasm;
Secretion / active transport of ions into xylem by endodermis;
OR
Active uptake of ions from soil at epidemis;
Lowers / s in xylem / increases osmosis into xylem;

Evidence for root pressure

The reduction in root pressure caused by metabolic inhibitors: prevent the release of energy by the mitochondria, thus the active loading of
minerals would decrease or stop meaning the water potential gradient was not as great so the osmotic influx of water would cease or reduce
causing a smaller hydrostatic pressure.
The effect of temperature on the root pressure: an increase in temperature will cause an increase in root pressure and vice versa, linked with the kinetic
energy of molecules, but also due to the temperature sensitivity of enzymes involved in cellular respiration and proteins involved in transport. At
very high temperatures enzymes will denature, change in the tertiary structure so the active site no longer complements the substrate.
58
A lack of oxygen will also reduce the root pressure; oxygen is required for the release of energy in aerobic respiration. A lack of oxygen results in
less energy resulting in less active loading of the ions into the xylem hence a reduction in root pressure.

Describe the roles of root

pressure and cohesion-tension in
moving water through the xylem.
Root pressure
Involves active transport of ions into
xylem;
Water potential in xylem reduced
Water potential gradient established
between xylem and surrounding cells
Water enters xylem by osmosis
Volume of water in xylem increases;
Pressure in xylem increases (and
forces water upwards);
Cohesion tension
Solar energy source;
Evaporation of water from leaves
through stomata
Water potential gradient created
across leaf / mesophyll cells;
therefore water moves out of xylem
(into surrounding tissues) by osmosis
this creates a pull/tension on the
water in xylem
Which is in a continuous column
Cohesion (or description) of water
molecules maintains column;
Due to H-bonding / polarity / charges
of water molecules ;
Column doesnt break because of
adhesion with xylem walls;
Lignified walls keep xylem (vessels)
open;
capillarity due to narrow lumen of
xylem (vessels);
Evidence to support supports cohesion
Evidence that supports the root
pressure theory
Guttation: (only) upward pressure could
force liquid water out of leaves;
OR
Sap exuding from a cut, rooted stem:
(only) upward force could make this
happen;

The diameter of a tree is less during the day, when the tree is transpiring, than it is at night.
Evaporation from leaves during daytime; tension/negative pressure (on water) in xylem creates
inward pull (on walls of xylem vessel);
xylem vessels become narrower; due to adhesion of water molecules (to walls of xylem vessels);
If air enters the xylem the transpiration stream can cease as cohesion is disrupted between the water molecules.
59
If the xylem breaks air is sucked into the vessel suggesting a negative pressure inside
The argument against is that rot pressure would force the xylem wider and thus increase the diameter of the tree

Water evaporates from the leaves but some is also used by the
plant. Describe the ways in which this water could be used by the
plant.
Water is used in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis;
electrons from water enable ATP production / H+ are used to
reduce NADP / produces O2 ;
(water can be used in) hydrolysis reactions within the plant;
to create turgor;
as a solvent for transport;
as a medium for chemical reactions;
component of cells / cytoplasm;

6
Explain how xerophytic adaptations reduce the rate of diffusion of water from
the leaf, make reference to Ficks law.
Reduced number of stomata; reduced surface area;
Thick waxy cuticle; increases diffusion distance;
Leaves reduced to spines; reduced surface area ;
(epidermal) hairs; reduce diffusion gradient;
Sunken stomata; reduced concentration gradient;
curled leaves; reduce concentration ; difference
Statement of Ficks law:
Rate of diffusion SA exchange surface conc difference
Thickness of exchange surface;
Low surface area, low concentration difference and high thickness/equivalent reduce
loss / candidate clearly relates features to equation to show how rate is reduced;

Sunken stomata: water evaporation into pit creates local humidity,

increased humidity reduces gradient for water evaporation; air movement
across stomata is reduced boundary layer of humid air builds up.
Close arrangement of stomata: diffusion shells of
individual stomata overlap so interferes with water diffusion and slows
evaporation;
Restriction of stomata to lower side of leaf: rate of air
movement below leaf less/ heating effect of sun less; gradient for water
evaporation reduced/ water molecules have less
kinetic energy;
Thick cuticle (on upper surface): waxy layer is waterproof; water unable
to to evaporate easily, diffusion distance has been increased
Presence of hairs: traps air which traps water and becomes saturated close to leaf
surface; increased humidity reduces gradient for water evaporation;
Reduced leaves/spines: less surface area for evaporation; more distance
across leaf for water to diffuse; fewer stomata for evaporation
Rolled leaves: stomata enclosed in localised humidity;
increased humidity reduces gradient for water evaporation; reduced
exposure to air currents
Stomata are close together: diffusion shells overlap
Explain how the presence of hairs and rolled leaves reduce
water loss in xerophytic plants.
Trap moist air / increase humidity;
Reduce air flow (around leaf surface / stomata);
Lower WP / water vapour concentration gradient (between inside
and outside of leaf);
Shield stomata from high temperature / high light
intensity / wind; ignore sun
Reduce transpiration / evaporation / diffusion of water (vapour);

60

Courtship behaviour is innate, in other words it is genetically programmed, so all

members of the same species show exactly the same courtship behaviour, while
members of different species show different behaviours.
The rituals relay on sign stimuli (specific external stimuli, sound, scent, colour,
movements) that elicit specific responses in potential mates. The males action can serve
as a sign stimulus to the female who responds with an action of her own, encouraging the male to carry out
a further action. The stimulus response chain.
It can be simple (releasing chemicals or complex involving displays
The behaviour is species specific; this prevents interbreeding and makes courtship
more successful
Females of many species are only receptive to mating for a short period of time. Courtship is used by
males to determine whether the female is receptive, if she responds with the appropriate response the
courtship continues. If she is not receptive the female exhibits a different pattern of behaviour and he
ceases the courtship.
In courtship animals use signals to communicate.
Elaborate courtship rituals develop by natural selection
Male with best display more likely to mate, they are thus, more likely to pass on genes; the genes for
features of display passed on; more young from these males exist in population and are thus more likely to
survive and reproduce, the process repeated through many generations.

This specificity of courtship rituals means they can be used in

classification: The courtship displays that are more similar are
like to be species that are close evolutionary relatives. The
more closely related a species the more similar the behaviour

There are 5 species represented in this table

B and C are most closely related because they have a similar sequence
(just one element missing for duck C). Whilst duck F is the most distant
as the sequence of behaviour is least like any of the others

Why is courtship behaviour necessary?

Acts as (sign) stimulus for mating behaviour /courtship signal;
Assists species recognition;
Identify members of the opposite sex recognition;
Identify members of the same species; as only they can
have fertile offspring
Identify members of the species that are sexually mature;
Synchronises mating behaviour;
Reduces aggression and allows animals to approach each
other
Forms a pair bond
61
Indicates fittest / healthy male;

Phylogenetics: Aims to classify species in to groups and reflect

their evolutionary history (phylogeny), it looks for the point of
divergence from a common ancestor.
The process can be supported by various techniques
1) Protein and Base sequencing: here the same protein of gene is
used. With proteins the amino acid sequence is determined. The
greater the differences in the amino acid sequence then this would
indicate a greater difference in the base/gene sequence that coded
for it. Suggesting a more distant evolutionary relationship, where
more time has passed to allow mutations to change the base
sequence. Sequencing the bases is a better approach, due to the
degeneracy of the genetic code where the same protein could be
coded for by a different codon, so although the proteins are the same
the actual bases/codons could be entirely different.

2) DNA Hybridisation: using the DNA sequence for the same

gene in both species
The DNA of the species to be compared is separated by heating,
breaks H bonds.
The DNA is mixed and cooled; this allows H-bonds to reform
between specific base pairs. The result will be a mixture of
species A, B and the desired hybrid DNA.
Hybrids are isolated and then heated to break the H-bonds. The
temperature required to break the H-bonds is recorded.
A high temperature suggests a high degree of H bonds; this could
only have happened if there were many complementary base
pairs, indicating the DNA is similar. A low temperature suggests
few H-bonds and thus the base sequence must have been
different.

3) Immunological comparison.
The same proteins form different species are
compared. The process relies upon the specificity
of antibodies for antigens
Serum albumin from A is injected into B.
B produces antibodies specific c to all the antigen
sites on the albumin from species A.
Serum is extracted from B; containing antibodies
specific to the antigens on the albumin from A.
Serum from species B is mixed with serum from
the blood of a third species C.
The antibodies respond to their corresponding
antigens on the albumin in the serum of species
C.
The response is the formation of a precipitate.
The greater the number of similar antigens, the
62 closely
more precipitate is formed and the more
the species are related. The fewer the number of
similar antigens, the less precipitate is formed
and the more distantly the species are related.

Classification/Taxonomy
Kingdom (5 possibilities: animal, protoctist, plant, fungi, prokaryote)
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
*king, Philip, Came, Over, From, Germany, Swimming*
Binomial naming system= Genus and species
What is meant by a hierarchy?
Large groups split into smaller groups (which do not
overlap);
How does a phylogenic system differ to a simple hierarchy? 3 max
(phylogenetic) based on evolutionary history;
shows ancestry of groups / points of divergence;
example, e.g. reptiles and birds separated after mammals /
reptiles
and birds more closely related than mammals;
(hierarchical) based on shared characteristics (seen today);
Explain the principles which biologists use to classify
organisms into groups. (3)
large groups are divided into smaller groups; (not just hierarchical)
members of a group have features in common; based on
anatomy/fossils/embryology/DNA/specific aspect of cell biology or
homologous structures, reflecting evolutionary history; phylogeny. Process
starts with species grouped into genus then grouped into family, order, class,
phylum. As the groups get larger there is a more distant common ancestry.
Explain the principles biologists use to classify organisms into groups
compared to older models.
Consider phylogeny
Look at evolutionary lineage/history
Find the point of divergence from a common ancestor
Consider, genetic, biochemical, embryology, homology of anatomy
Organisms are arranged in a hierarchy where large taxa (groups) are
subdivided into smaller taxa
(K, P, C, O, F, G,S)
As groups get smaller the similarities between the species increase
Each species is given a binomial name using the genus and species
Older models of classification used observable features to group organisms

How does a phylogenic system differ to a simple hierarchy? 3 max

Hierarchical classification, large groups are divided into smaller groups
Process starts with species grouped into genus then grouped into family, order, class, phylum.
As the groups get larger there is a more distant common ancestory
Initially this was based on shared easily observable characteristics
(phylogenetic) based on evolutionary history;
shows ancestry of groups / points of divergence;
members of a group have features in common; based on
anatomy/fossils/embryology/DNA/specific aspect of cell biology or homologous structures,
reflecting evolutionary history; phylogeny.
Describe the principles on which the system of classification of living
organisms is based. (4)
hierarchy / groups within groups / KPCOFGS;
no overlap;
common structures / similar characteristics;
reflecting evolutionary history;
binominal nomenclature / example;
definition of a species;
Scientists analysis of blood proteins has indicated a lack of genetic diversity in
populations of some organisms. Describe the processes that lead to a reduction in the
genetic diversity of populations of organisms.
1. Reduced variety/number of different alleles/DNA / reduced gene pool (in new population);
2. Founder effect;
3. A few individuals from a population become isolated/form colonies:
4. (Genetic) bottlenecks;
5. (Significant) fall in size of population
6. Selective breeding / artificial selection;
7. Using organisms with particular alleles/traits/phenotypes/characteristics;
Scientists studied two species of North American seahorse. They thought that these
two species are closely related. Describe how comparisons of biological molecules in
these two species could be used to find out if they are closely related.
(Compare) DNA;
Sequence of bases/nucleotides;
DNA hybridisation;
Heat and Separate DNA strands / break hydrogen bonds;
Mix DNA/strands (of different species);
Measure Temperature/heat required to separate (hybrid) strands indicates relationship;
Higher temp more closely related
Compare same/named protein;
Sequence of amino acids /primary structure;
Immunological evidence not a mark
Inject (seahorse) protein/serum into animal
(Obtain) antibodies/serum;
Add protein/serum/plasma from other (seahorse) species;
Amount of precipitate indicates relationship

63

Antibiotics are antimicrobial agents produced naturally by other microbes (usually fungi or bacteria).
Many chemicals kill microbes. But a therapeutically useful antimicrobial agent must be selectively toxic i.e. it must kill pathogenic microbes already
growing in human tissue, without also killing the host human cells. Antibiotics do this by inhibiting enzymes that are unique to prokaryotic cells, such those
involved in synthesising the bacterial cell wall or 70S ribosomes. For example:
Penicillin (and related antibiotics ampicillin, amoxicillin and methicillin) inhibits an enzyme involved in the synthesis of peptidoglycan for bacterial cell wall.
This weakens the cell wall, killing bacterial cells by osmotic lysis.
Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin inhibit enzymes in ribosomes. This stops protein synthesis so prevents cell division.

Antibiotics can be
Bacteriocidal: kills the microbes
Bacteriostatic: Inhibits the growth of
microbial population allows time for
immune response
Broad
spectrum:
antibiotics
effective against a range of microbial
species
Narrow Spectrum: antibiotics that
are effective against a few species of

Desired
characteristics
of
antibiotics
Cheap to make
Easy to administer
Minimal/no side effects
Effective
against
targeted
pathogenic organism
Persists long enough and in suitable
concentrations within the host to be
effective

How antibiotics work

Prevent cell wall synthesis: this only works on growing bacteria. It stops
cross links between peptidoglycan monomers in the cell wall from
forming, so it is weak. Water will often enter bacteria by osmosis as the water
potential inside the cell is more negative than the surrounding medium. The
pressure inside the cell increases which is usually resisted by the cell wall
(pressure potential) which is now less effective and the cell may rupture
(osmotic lysis)
Prevent
DNA
replication:
prevents
the
bacteria
from
reproducing/dividing so the population stops increasing allowing time for an
immune response. The joining of nucleotides in replication is controlled by
enzymes and the active site of the enzyme is blocked so the reactions cannot
be catalysed.
Prevent mRNA synthesis (transcription): No genetic code is transferred to
the ribosomes, so no protein synthesis of either structural or functional
(enzymes/channel/carrier proteins). This antibiotic may carry out its effect by
cutting DNA in to sections so it cant be transcribed to mRNA.
Prevent translation (protein synthesis): stopping protein synthesis means
that no structural or functional proteins can be made. This may be done by
binding to the ribosomes so tRNA can not bind and peptide bonds cannot form.
This is a broad spectrum antibiotic as all bacteria produce proteins. It does not
affect host, possibly as it only attaches to 70s ribosomes and humans are
eukaryotic and have 80s, it is also possible that the mechanism by which it
enters the cell requires a special carrier that is only found on bacterial cells

1) Given to patients with a viral infection, not because it will

have an effect on the virus as they..
Have no organelles
Are inside the cells
Are acellular (not made of cells)
Have a protein coat and not a cell wall
Do not have their own metabolism
But it will prevent a secondary infection developing from
opportunistic bacteria which may result from the weakening of the
immune system caused by the viral infection.
2) Tissue culturing (prophylactic)
3) Used in cattle feed:
Stimulates growth, increase in biomass thus can be sold
quicker so profit increase
Keeps them healthy (prophylactic: preventative measure)
[Unwanted dosage may pass to people consuming the meat leading
to an immune response and results in the inability to use it to treat
infections and can lead to the spread of antibiotic resistance within
the same species and other species of bacteria as seen in the flow

64

Development of resistance
Natural mutation (change in the genetic code) results in resistance (ability to
produce an enzyme like penicillinase, change in the targeted receptor protein that
uptakes the antibiotic into the bacterial cell so it no longer complements the shape of the
carrier protein)
This bacteria has an advantage over others
Use of the antibiotic selects for the resistant strain of the bacteria
Resistant strain survives and reproduces passing on the allele to next generation
(vertical transmission)
Genes for resistance are usually found on the plasmid and this can be exchanged
between bacteria (conjugation) of the same species of different species (horizontal
transmission)
Preventing resistance
Use a lower dose of the Antibiotic to prevent selection for the resistant forms
Use less antibiotics (particularly for trivial ailments) reduces selection for the resistant
form
Vary the type of antibiotics used reduces selection for resistance
Use a high dose of the antibiotic for a short time killing all
Complete the course prevents re-emergence of dormant forms
Do not use other peoples antibiotics or antibiotics from other illnesses
Do not use them in animal feeds

Imagine a community of different bacterial species

living in your gut, and one particular cell has just
mutated to become resistant to penicillin. What
happens next? It will reproduce by binary fission
and pass on its resistance gene to all its offspring,
forming a new strain of bacteria in your gut. If
there is no antibiotic present in your gut (most
likely) this mutated strain may well die out due to
competition with all the other bacteria, and the
mutation will be lost again. However, if you are
taking penicillin, then penicillin will be present in
the bacteria's environment, and these mutated cells
are now at a selective advantage: the antibiotic kills
all the normal bacterial cells, leaving only the
mutant cells alive. These cells can then reproduce
rapidly without competition and will colonise the
whole environment. This
a good example of natural selection at work. The
mutant cells have been selected by the environment
and
so the frequency of the mutated gene in the
population has increased.

Bacteria have a trick that no other organisms can do: they can transfer genes between each other
by conjugation. This is the transfer of DNA between bacterial cells via a cytoplasmic bridge or
pilus. From time to time two bacterial cells can join together (conjugate), and DNA passes from
one (the donor) to the other (the recipient). The transferred DNA can be one or more plasmids,
or can be all or part of the whole bacterial chromosome (in which case the donor cell dies).
Conjugation is sometimes referred to as bacterial sex or mating, but it is quite distinct from
sexual reproduction, because the gene exchange is not equal, it can take place between different
species, and bacteria do not use conjugation for reproduction. It is better thought of as an
alternative to sex, where these asexual organisms gain some of the advantages of genetic
exchange.
Conjugation means a resistance gene can spread from the bacterium in which it arose to other,
perhaps more dangerous, species. It is also the cause of multiple resistance. It is highly unlikely
that a single strain will mutate twice to develop resistance to antibiotics, but it is 65
perfectly likely
that it could receive genes for
resistance to different antibiotics by horizontal gene transfer. This has led to strains of bacteria
that are resistant to many (or even all) antibiotics.

Explain how resistance to an

antibiotic could become widespread
in a bacterial population
Genetic mutations naturally occurs
resulting in resistant allele
Frequent use of antibiotic creates
selection pressure/ antibiotic
kills
bacteria;
bacteria with mutation have (selective)
advantage over others / described;
survive to reproduce more than other
types;
Pass on advantageous allele/ mutated
allele in greater numbers;
frequency of (advantageous) allele
increases in subsequent
generations;

Ways in which an antibiotic could act against

bacteria

Describe ways in which antibiotics can act against bacteria. Explain

why this mode of action is effective against the bacteria.

Disruption of cell wall;

inhibit mRNA translation / protein synthesis;
inhibits nucleic acid synthesis / DNA replication;
interfere with functioning of bacterial membrane;

Prevent DNA replication

Prevent m-RNA synthesis (transcription)
Prevent transfer of amino acids to ribosomes (translation)
Prevent cell wall synthesis
Preventing DNA replication:
bacterial cell will be unable to divide;
Prevent reproduction population of bacteria will not increase;
Preventing m-RNA synthesis
no m-RNA means code not passed to ribosomes for transcription;; no
protein synthesis means no new enzymes;
Preventing transfer of amino acid
No proteins made at ribosomes
No translation means no enzymes / no proteins structures;
Prevent cell wall synthesis
Water potential of bacterial cell lower than surrounding solution
Water enters by osmosis
Osmotic lysis occurs

66

We can compare members of different species to show interspecific variation, or we can look at members of
the same species to look at intraspecific variation. Variation arises due.
1) Genetic differences: independent assortment in meiosis, crossing over in meiosis, mutations, random
fusion of gametes
2) Environmental influence
We onlt measure a smaple of the population, and it must be chosen carefully.
Randomly: avoid bias
It must be large to be representative and minimise anomalies
If the numbers are large enough and the results can be plotted as a graph (the characteristic is measured
quantitatively) the data usually follows a normal distribution curve and are described as continuous (usually
characteristics that are polygenic: controlled by more than one gene). This curve is described by
1) The mean:
2) The standard deviation
Characteristics controlled by a single gene (and that are not influenced by environmental factors)
do not show intermediate values and are described as discontinuous/discrete
Standard deviation gives an indication of the value range
either side of the mean. It shows the variability in the data.
2 sets of data could have the same mean or range
suggesting the populations are similar, but the variation
around this mean could differ considerably, and so
standard deviation would show this.

Calculating the standard

deviation

So standard deviation is a more effective when comparing

variation in populations as the range and mean are
affected by a single outlier, SD shows variation about the
mean, standard deviation can b eused in statistical
analysis to determine significance of differences
In the graph opposite we can see that
both sets of data have the same mean
value, however
There is a more uniform population with a
small standard deviation
And a more varied population where the
standard deviation is large
Data set A: 46, 42, 44, 45, 43 mean = 44
Data set B: 52, 80, 22, 30, 36 mean = 44

Geneteic variation is important in evolution

because
It creates a rnage of phenotypes, some of which
are better adapted to the environment
These organismssuvive and reproduce (natural
selcteion)
Passing on their useful alleles
Alleic frequencies change over time.

67

68