Spelling, Hyphen,

34 Apostrophe

34.1 CHECKING YOUR SPELLING WITH A

COMPUTER PROGRAM

If you’re writing with a computer and have access to a spell-check program,

use it. The program will check every word in your essay against the words
in its own dictionary; it will list or “flag” every word of yours that its
dictionary doesn’t have; and in some cases, it will tell you which words in
its dictionary resemble yours. If you’ve written complament, for instance,
the program will furnish two correctly spelled alternatives: compliment and
complement.
Spell checkers, however, will not proofread your essay or correct
your misspellings for you. The programs can merely tell you which of
your words does not appear in the program dictionary, and suggest one
or more similar words that do. Also, spell checkers can seldom identify a
word misspelled for its context. If you write a peace of pie, most programs
will accept the phrase—simply because each of its words appears in the
program dictionary. Likewise, when the program suggests compliment
and complement as correctly spelled alternatives to complament, you must
still choose between these alternatives. If you don’t know what each
means, you will need to consult a printed dictionary or perhaps our
Glossary of Usage.
Spell checkers can save you time and help you spot misspellings that
you might have overlooked. But since no such program is foolproof, you
should keep a good dictionary within easy reach of the computer screen.
And to improve your spelling generally, you may also want to use one or
more of the pre-electronic methods explained below.

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 Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe suffix 34.3

34.2 LISTING YOUR SPELLING DEMONS

Keep an analytical list of your spelling demons—words you have trouble

spelling. Beside each of the words, write out the correct spelling, as shown
in your dictionary. Then, beside the correct spelling of the word, write the
letter or letters involved in the error. Your list will look like this:
CORRECTLY
MISSPELLED SPELLED ERROR

alot a lot al / a l

goverment government erm / ern

defensable defensible able / ible

imovable immovable im / imm

defenite definite en / in

34.3 LEARNING HOW TO ADD SUFFIXES

Learn how to add suffixes—extra letters at the end of a word.

1. Change final y to i before adding a suffix:

beauty + ful = beautiful

bury + ed = buried

tricky + est = trickiest

carry + es = carries

EXCEPTION : If y follows a vowel or if the suffix is -ing, keep the y:

joy + ful = joyful

carry + ing = carrying

bury + ing = burying

2. Drop silent e before adding -able or -ing:

love + able = lovable

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34.4 prefix Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe

care + ing = caring

restore + ing = restoring

If any other suffix is added, keep the e:

care + ful = careful

aware + ness = awareness

EXCEPTION : If the silent e follows c or g, keep the e before -able:

change + able = changeable

peace + able = peaceable

3. If the word ends in a single consonant after a single vowel (forget) and
the accent is on the last syllable (for get′), double the consonant before
adding -ing, -ed, -or, or -er:
for get′ + ing = forgetting

re fer′ + ed = referred

bet′ + or = bettor

If the accent is not on the last syllable, do not double the consonant:
ham′ mer + ing = hammering

a ban′ don + ed = abandoned

al′ ter + ing = altering

34.4 LEARNING HOW TO ADD PREFIXES

Learn how to add prefixes—extra letters at the beginning of a word. When

adding a prefix, be careful to add all of its letters, and only those:
dis + satisfaction = dissatisfaction

mis + fire = misfire

mis + spell = misspell

un + necessary = unnecessary

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 Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe nouns 34.6

34.5 RECOGNIZING HOMONYMS

1. Distinguish between homonyms—words that sound alike but have

different meanings and different spellings, such as these:
bare bear

brake break

capital capitol

cite site sight

peace piece

principal principle

right write rite

there their they’re

If you aren’t sure how to spell a homonym, see your dictionary.

2. Distinguish between partial homonyms—words with syllables that

sound alike but are spelled differently, such as these:
tolerate separate

supersede exceed concede

dominance (think of dominate) existence (think of existential)

incredible (think of credit) irritable (think of irritate)

34.6 PLURALIZING SIMPLE NOUNS

1. Form the plural of most nouns by adding -s:

book, books

2. Form the plural of nouns ending in ch, s, sh, x, and z by adding -es
(pronounced as a syllable):
church, churches business, businesses tax, taxes

EXCEPTIONS : crisis, crises; basis, bases; ox, oxen

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34.6 nouns Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe

3. Form the plural of nouns ending in fe by changing f to v before

adding -es:
wife, wives life, lives

4. Form the plural of nouns ending in f by changing the f to v and then

adding -es:
leaf, leaves thief, thieves

EXCEPTION : Some nouns ending in f need only -s to become plural:

chief, chiefs belief, beliefs proof, proofs

5. Form the plural of some nouns ending in o by adding -es:

hero, heroes

Most nouns ending in o need only an -s to become plural:

piano, pianos solo, solos

mosquito, mosquitos (or mosquitoes) banjo, banjos (or banjoes)

6. Form the plural of words ending in a consonant plus y by changing

the y to -ies:
vacancy, vacancies authority, authorities

Words ending in a vowel plus y need only an -s to become plural:

day, days attorney, attorneys

7. Form the plural of some nouns in special ways:

datum, data criterion, criteria woman, women

The forms data and criteria reflect the derivation of the words from Latin
and Greek respectively.

8. Form the plural of figures, numbers written as words, capitalized

letters, undotted abbreviations, and isolated words by adding -s or an apos-
trophe plus -s:
the 1990s / the 1990’s

three YMCAs / three YMCA’s

twos and threes / two’s and three’s

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 Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe nouns 34.7
four Cs / four C’s

no ifs or buts / no if’s or but’s

9. Form the plural of lowercase letters and dotted abbreviations by

adding an apostrophe and -s:
six s’s and five m’s three M.A.’s two c.o.d.’s

10. Some nouns are spelled the same in the plural as in the singular:
deer, deer fish, fish barracks, barracks

34.7 PLURALIZING COMPOUND NOUNS

Compound nouns are written as separate words (master chef), as words

linked by a hyphen (self-esteem), or as one word (notebook). Here are
guidelines.

1. If the compound is written as one word, pluralize the final word:

notebook notebooks

blueberry blueberries

EXCEPTION : passerby, passersby

2. If the compound is hyphenated or written as separate words, pluralize

the major word:
mother-in-law mothers-in-law

editor in chief editors in chief

A few compounds have alternative plurals: attorney general, for instance,

may be pluralized as attorneys general or attorney generals.

3. If the compound has no noun within it, pluralize the final word:
also-ran also-rans

4. If the compound ends in -ful, add s:

mouthful mouthfuls

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34.8 hyph Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe

34.8 USING THE HYPHEN

1. Use a hyphen to divide a long word at the end of a line:

The long black centipede walked across the sand with an enor-
mous limp.

Normally you divide a word at the end of a syllable. But do not put
syllables of one or two letters on either side of a hyphen, as in *i-tem and
*end-ed. If you aren’t sure what the syllables of a word are, see your
dictionary.

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 Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe hyph 34.8
2. Use a hyphen to form a compound of three or more words:
The older citizens don’t want a Johnny-come-lately for mayor.

But they don’t want a stick-in-the-mud either.

3. Use a hyphen to form a compound adjective:

Enrico Caruso was a world-famous tenor.

I wouldn’t touch cocaine with a ten-foot pole.

Spike Lee is a well-known movie director.

Twentieth-century writers include Faulkner and Hemingway.

4. Do not use a hyphen:

a. Between an adjective and a noun in a noun phrase:

The twentieth century will soon come to an end.

b. In a compound predicate adjective:

Spike Lee is well known.

c. In compounds made with an adverb ending in -ly, such as widely held.

FORMING COMPOUND NOUNS

Generally, use a hyphen in a compound noun when both items serve as
nouns:
city-state

poet-critic

teacher-scholar

Generally, use no hyphen when the first noun serves as an adjective modi-
fying the second:
stone wall

city hall

master chef

police officer

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34.8 hyph Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe

EXCEPTIONS : Some compound nouns are made with neither a hyphen nor
a space (paintbrush, notebook), and some make it hard to tell whether the
first item is serving as an adjective or not (beer drinker, cattle prod). If in
doubt about hyphenating a particular noun compound, see your dictionary.

ATTACHING PREFIXES
Use a hyphen to join a prefix to a capitalized word:
un-American

post-Renaissance

pre-Reformation

Generally, use no hyphen to join a prefix to an uncapitalized word:

deemphasize

nonprofit

antibodies

EXCEPTIONS : Some words made with prefixes may be written with or with-
out hyphens, but the choice of one or the other affects the meaning of the
word; re-cover, for instance, does not mean the same as recover. For words
such as this, see your dictionary.

WRITING OUT NUMBERS

Use a hyphen in a number written as two words, provided it is below one
hundred:
Twenty-five applicants have requested interviews.

Two-thirds of the trees had been cut.

One-half of the design is complete.

Do not attach a hyphen to the word for any number over ninety-nine:
Some cars can run over three hundred miles on a tank of gas.

One speaker earned eight thousand dollars for a single lecture.

Thirty-five thousand spectators watched the game.

Thirty-five, which is below one hundred, is hyphenated, but no hyphen is

attached to thousand.

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 Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe apos 34.9

34.9 USING THE APOSTROPHE

1. To form the possessive of nouns and abbreviations that do not end

in s, use an apostrophe plus -s:
a girl’s hat Bill’s car a team’s mascot

NATO’s future the C.O.’s orders Dr. T.’s patients

men’s activities children’s toys someone’s coat

If a singular noun ends in s (as in James) you may form the possessive by
adding an apostrophe plus -s (James’s apartment) or by adding just the
apostrophe (James’ apartment). Custom calls for the latter form with Zeus,
Moses, Jesus, and ancient Greek names ending in es: Zeus’ thunderbolts,
Moses’ staff, Jesus’ teachings, Sophocles’ plays.

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34.9 apos Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe

2. To form the possessive of plural nouns ending in s, add just an

apostrophe:
players players’ uniforms

animals animals’ eating habits

the Joneses the Joneses’ car

3. To indicate that two people possess something jointly, add an apostro-

phe, and -s if necessary, to the second of the two nouns:
Ann and James’ apartment

Tim and Susan’s wedding album

To indicate that two people possess two or more things separately, use the
apostrophe, and -s if necessary, with both of the nouns:
Paul’s and Marysa’s cars

Kitty’s and James’ tests

4. To form the possessive with singular compound nouns, add an apos-

trophe plus -s to the last word:
my sister-in-law’s career the editor in chief’s policy

5. To form the possessive of certain indefinite pronouns, add an apostro-

phe plus -s:
someone’s coat no one’s fault everybody else’s jokes

With indefinite pronouns that do not take the apostrophe, form the pos-
sessive with of: the plans of most, the hopes of many, the triumphs of few.

6. Use the possessive case with nouns or pronouns followed by gerunds:

The crowd’s cheering could be heard a mile away.

Everyone who hears the young violinist admires her playing.

For more on this point, see 13.11.

7. Use an apostrophe, and -s when necessary, in common phrases of time

and measurement:
four o’clock five dollars’ worth

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 Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe misus 34.10
two weeks’ notice a day’s work

our money’s worth a stone’s throw

8. Use an apostrophe plus -s to form the plurals shown above in 34.6,

items 8 and 9.

9. Use an apostrophe to mark the omission of a letter or letters in a

contraction:
I have finished. I’ve finished.

He is not here. He’s not here.

This does not work. This doesn’t work.

They will not stop. They won’t stop.

You should have written. You should’ve written.

10. Use an apostrophe to mark the omission of numbers in dates:

the election of ‘92 the Great Crash of ‘29

34.10 MISUSING THE APOSTROPHE

1. Do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of nouns:

(

£ Five girl’s went swimming.

£ Two houses’ need paint.

2. Do not use an apostrophe with the possessive forms of the personal

pronouns:
(

£ This is our thermos; that one is their’s.

(

£ Ben’s notes are incomplete; your’s are thorough.

3. Do not confuse the possessive pronoun its with the contraction it’s
(for it is). Use its as you use his; use it’s as you use he’s:
his success he’s successful

its success it’s successful

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34.10 misus Spelling, Hyphen, Apostrophe

4. Do not confuse the possessive whose with the contraction who’s (for
who is):
Whose notebook is this?

No one knows whose painting this is.

Who’s going to the concert?

No one has heard of the pianist who’s scheduled to play.

5. Do not use the apostrophe and -s to form a possessive when the con-
struction would be cumbersome:
WEAK :Questions about the candidate’s husband’s financial dealings hurt
her campaign.

EDITED : Questions about the financial dealings of the candidate’s husband

hurt her campaign.

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