Introduction of computer

Introduction of Computer
A Computer is an electronic device that can perform a variety of operations in accordance with a
set of instructions called, program. That is, the operations are carried out by the control of coded
instructions.
The computer as a system is a combination of hardware and software components that jointly
offer the necessary services to the user.

Features (characteristics) of computers

Speed
Computer performs complex calculations at a very high speed. The speed of computer at
performing a single operation can be measured in terms of: Milliseconds (One thousandth of
second, i.e. 1/1000 or 10-3), Microseconds (10-6), Nanoseconds (10-9) and Picoseconds (10-12).
Storage
A large amount of data can be stored in computers memory. The storing capacity is measured in
terms of Bytes, Kilobytes, Megabytes, Gigabytes and Terabytes.
8 bit.1 Byte
1024 Bytes .............................1 Kilobyte (KB)
1024 Kilobytes .......................1 Megabyte (MB)
1024 Megabytes .....................1 Gigabyte (GB)
1024 Gigabytes ......................1 Terabyte (TB)
Accuracy
Computer can perform all the calculations and comparisons accurately. Sometimes, errors may
be produced by computers due to the fault in the machine or due to bugs in the programs. If the
input data are not correct, this may also lead to incorrect output. The computers follow the
simple rule of GIGO (Garbage In; Garbage Out).
Reliability
Computer never gets tired, bored or lazy to do its task i.e., the computer is capable of performing
task repeatedly at the same level of speed and accuracy even if it has to carry complex operation
for a long period of time. Computers are quite capable of functioning automatically, once the
process is given to the computer.
Versatility
Computer has a wide range of application areas i.e., computer can do many types of jobs. It can
perform operations ranging from simple mathematical calculations to highly complex and logical
evaluations for any extended period of time. Some of the application areas of computers are
Education, Science and Technology, Business, Medicine, Astronomy etc.

Introduction of computer

Impacts of computer on society

Negative Impacts of computer on society
o Unemployment
o High cost
o Loss of data
o Man becomes lazy
o Massive destruction
Limitations of computer
The computer can outperform human beings in speed, memory and accuracy but still the
computer has limitations. There are following limitations of a computer.
Programmed by human:
Though computer is programmed to work efficiently, fast and accurately but it is programmed by
human beings to do so. Without a program, computer is nothing. A program is a set of
instructions. Computer only
follows these instructions. If the instructions are not accurate the working of computer will not
accurate.
Thinking:
The computer cannot think itself. The concept of artificial intelligence shows that the computer
can think. But still this concept is dependent on set of instructions provided by the human beings.
Self Care:
A Computer cannot care itself like a human. A computer is dependent still to human beings for
this purpose.
Retrieval of memory:
A computer can retrieve data very fast but this technique is linear. A human being's mind does
not follow this rule. A human mind can think randomly which a computer machine can not.
Feelings:
One of the main limits in the computer is of feeling. A computer can not feel about some like a
human. A computer cannot meet human in respect of relations.
Human can feel, think and caring but a computer machine itself cannot.
History of computer
The actual meaning of history is an orderly account of the events. The computer, which is one of
the most advanced discoveries of mankind, has got a long history.
Around 3000 years before the birth of Jesus Christ, there were no any kinds of number system.
So, people had to remember a lot of information. They felt the need to count the things. Then
they started counting using their fingers. But the limited number of fingers had made it difficult

Introduction of computer
for them to remember more facts. So, they used stones for counting or they made scratches on
wall or tied knots in a rope.
As a result, around fifth century, Hindu philosophers could develop a new method of counting
using numbers 1 to 9 and around 8th century, the famous Alkhawarism of Iraq developed zero
(0). Since, there are ten digits, the number system method was called decimal number system.
After this, different calculating machines were developed through various stages.
Calculating Devices
Abacus
Abacus is a counting machine, which consists of beads divided into two parts, which are
movable on the rods or wires of two parts. The upper part is called heaven and each bead has a
value equal to 5. The lower part is called earth and each bead has a value equal to 1. While
calculating, the beads are brought near to the mid-bar. Its exact origin is unknown. It may have
originated in china, Egypt or Greece. The abacus is still used in some parts of the world today
(china).
Napiers bone
In 1614, a Scottish mathematician John Napier, first published the table of logarithms, i.e. the
tabular arrangement of number in such a way that we could do multiplication and other
calculations.
In 1617, Napier also developed a set of numbered rods for multiplication, division and extraction
of roots. These rods were made up of strips of bones on which numbers were carved and painted,
which is often called Napier bones.
Pascals Adding Machine
In 1642, a French mathematician Blaise Pascal invented the first real calculating machine, that
could add and subtract numbers quickly, was named as Pascals adding machine. It consists of
numbered toothed wheels, each wheel having numbers from 0 to 9. A complete turning of first
wheel causes the 2nd wheel to move the next number. The disadvantage of this machine was that
it could not carry out multiplication and divisions.
Leibnitzs calculator
In 1671, a German mathematician Gottfried Leibnitz, improved an adding machine and
constructed a new machine, called Stepped Reckoner, which was able to perform multiplication
and division as well. This machine performed multiplication through repeated addition of
numbers. Leibnitzs machine used stepped cylinder each with nine teeth of varying lengths
instead of wheels as was used by Pascal.

Introduction of computer

Jacquards loom
At the beginning of the 19th century, i.e. in 1801, Joseph Jacquard of France invented a punched
card as an accessory (helper) to the loom. Punched cards controlled its operations. Needles could
pull threads through cards where there were holes. Thus, Jacquard could control the weaving
loom through the set of holes in a card, which could store the instruction for the loom.
Babbages difference and analytical engine
In 1822, a professor of mathematics, Charles Babbage developed a machine called Difference
engine in Cambridge university. It was made to calculate various mathematical function and
logarithmic tables. Difference machine was intended to be steam powered, fully automatic, even
to the printing of the resulting tables and commanded by a fixed instruction program.
While working on the difference table, in 1833, he developed the new idea to build an
Analytical engine which was to become a real ancestor of the modern day computer. Thats
why he is famous as a father of computer. The analytical machine would operate on words of
50 digits and was able to store 1000 such numbers. The instructions for the machine were to be
stored on punched cards like on Jacquard loom. He wanted to input data with the help of
punched card and output (result) to be printed on copper plates. Babbages analytical engine and
modern day computer are similar in their structure. But unfortunately, due to the lack of time and
equipments, he was unable to complete this machine, so the world had to wait for another
hundred years.
Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace
After the death of Babbage, an English mathematician, Ada Lovelace, a long-time supporter of
Babbage was successful in discovering some of the key elements of programming and program
design. She found that the same set of punched cards could be reused to repeat certain
instructions. So, she got the idea of loop in the program. To honor her contribution, the
programming language used in American defense was named as ADA.
Holleriths machine
In 1887, an American statistician, Herman Hollerith constructed a tabulating machine to compute
the statistics of 1890 US census. He used the punched cards to store data, with the holes
representing data values. This machine can read 200 punched cards per minute. So, Holleriths
punched cards method become very popular and widely used. In 1896, he established the
Tabulating Machine Company to make and sell his invention. Later in 1923, this firm merged
with other companies to form the IBM Corporation, which is the most popular and biggest
company in computer manufacturing.
Electromechanical Computers

Introduction of computer

MarkI
In 1937, Harvard professor, Howard Aiken, constructed an electromechanical computer named
mark-I, which was the first machine that could perform according to pre-programmed instruction
automatically.
It was 51 ft. long, 8 ft. height and 3ft. wide using 18,000 vacuum tube with 7 lakhs 50 thousands
parts and weight approx. 32 tons. Being a huge machine, it takes more time in calculation.
Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC)
In 1938, John Atanasoff and his student Clifford Berry designed Atanasoff Berry Computer
(ABC) for solving systems of simultaneous equation. It had a memory consisting 45 vacuum
tubes.
Electronic computers
Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC)
In 1946, J. P. Eckert and J. W. Mauchly developed ENIAC. This machine was built to meet the
needs of US Armed Forces to use in World War II. It was 300 times faster than any other device
of the days. It was huge in size with 18,000 vacuum tubes, produced more heat as it consumed
180 Kilowatts of power and needed to be cooling system.
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)
Hungarian mathematician, John von Neumann gave two ideas:
Binary number system (instead of decimal number system) can be used in building
computers.
Computer instruction as well as the data being manipulated could be stored internally
in the machine (Store Program Concept)
In 1947, John Von Neumann proposed his store program concept for EDVAC. In 1952,
Neumann and Ballistics Research Laboratory of US Army completed EDVAC, which was based
on store program concept. This machine would read instructions from computer storage for
switching a new program.
Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer (EDSAC)
In 1949, Maurice V. Wilkes at Cambridge University built a computer named EDSAC, which
was based on assembly language (symbolic form language). It also used store program concept
of John Von Neumann.
Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC)
In 1951, J. P. Eckert and J. W. Mauchly built UNIVAC for the Census Bureau. It was the first
computer designed for commercial use. It used magnetic tape for entering information and
permanent storage of data.

Introduction of computer
Generation of computer
In 1962, scientists decided to classify computer into different classes according to the device
technology and system architecture. The computers are classified into five groups. These groups
are called generation of computer.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The classification and the time period are given below.

1st generation computer (1945 1956)
2nd generation computer (1956 1963)
3rd generation computer (1963- 1971)
4th generation computer (1971 present)
5th generation computer (Present and beyond)

First generation (1945-1956)

The computer, using vacuum tubes as the electronic devices and machine language for giving
instructions, are called first generation computers. They were huge in size (occupied a large
space). Vacuum tube was invented by Lee De Forest in 1908. It consumed more electrical power
and produced more heat. So, air conditioning arrangement was needed.
For example, ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1000 capacitors, 7,000 resistors and 5 million
soldered joints, occupied 1500 sq. ft, which consumes 160 kilowatts of electrical power. ENIAC
computed at speeds 300 times faster than mark-I.
Vacuum tubes were used for electronic circuits and punched cards, magnetic drums and mercury
delay lines for storage medium. The storage capacity of computer was limited. It had low
operating speed (Milliseconds, i.e. 10-3 sec). Output was less accuracy (less reliable).
The other examples of first generation computer are EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC etc.

Second generation (1956-1963)

Second generation of the computer started after the invention of transistors by Trio group (John
Barden, Walter Brattain and William Schokely) at Bell laboratory in 1948. Transistor was at
work in the computer by 1956, which replaced the vacuum tubes of first generation computer.
Transistors were smaller, faster, cheaper and highly reliable than vacuum tubes. The size of
computers became smaller than the first generation computers.
These transistors had no filament, so they consumed less power and generated less heat. That is,
they required less electricity and emitted less heat than vacuum tubes. Also, magnetic cores were
developed for primary storage and punched card, magnetic tape and magnetic disk for secondary
storage.

Introduction of computer
Second-generation computer replaced machine language with assembly language (symbolic form
or mnemonic form) to replace long difficult binary codes for giving instructions. Due to
availability of large memories, some high level languages such as COBOL (Common Business
Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) came in common use during this time.
The operating speed was increased up to the microsecond range (10-6 sec).
The examples of the second-generation computers are IBM 1401, IBM 1600, 7070, 7080, 7080
and Honey well 400 series.
Third generation (1963 1971)
The third generation computers replaced transistors with Integrated circuits (IC) popularly
known as chips. An IC is an electronic circuit with a large number of components built on a
small silicon chip. That is, all the components were squeezed on a single chip, which increased
the speed and efficiency of computers.
Small Scale Integrated Circuits (SSI), which had about 10 transistors per chip, and Medium
Scale Integrated Circuits (MSI) with 100 transistors per chip could replace transistors, and the
semiconductor memory (RAM and ROM) replaced the magnetic core memory elements as
primary storage medium. The magnetic disk was able to replace magnetic tape as secondary
storage medium.
The computers using ICs proved to be highly reliable, relatively inexpensive and faster (the
operating speed was increased to nanoseconds, 10-9 sec). Less human labour was required at
assembly stage. They were smaller in size but had high memory capacity. The computer used
high-level languages such as Pascal and FORTRAN.
The examples of third generation computers are IBM 360 series, IBM 370 series, ICL 1900
series, ICL 2900 etc.
Fourth generation (1971-Present)
The fourth generation computer use LSI (large Scale Integration) and VLSI (Very large Scale
Integration) circuits for internal operations. A single silicon chip of LSI or VLSI has thousands
of ICs built on it. This chip reduced the physical size of the computer and increased their power,
efficiency and reliability. The speed of operation is measured in Pico-seconds (10-12 sec).
Because of the VLSI technology, it become possible to build many computing functions on a
single chip. The microprocessor, which is the main component of fourth generation computer, is
a semiconductor device consisting of electronic logic circuits manufactured by using VLSI
technique. Then in 1971, American Intel Corporation developed first microprocessor (microchip)
called 4004 microprocessor. Today, such a microprocessor contains millions of transistors. It is
capable of performing various computing functions and making decisions to change the sequence
of program execution. Since 1973, many American Companies started to manufacture
microcomputers. For examples, IBM PC, Apple/ Macintosh, Wang Laser, Letron etc. ICL
2950/10 (International Computer Limited company) was brought in Nepal for census 2038 B.S.

Introduction of computer
The semiconductor memories (RAM and ROM) are used as primary storage and magnetic disk
(floppy disk, hard disk), optical disk (CD-ROM, CD-RW, CD-R, CD-R/W) and pen drives are
used as secondary storage.
The fourth generation computers are user-friendly due to development of operating system and
application software. As smaller computers but more powerful, they could be linked together, or
network, to share memory space, software, information and communicate with each other. So,
these computers are mostly used in offices, home, teaching and other organizations.
Fifth generation computer (coming generation)
The fifth generation computers are under development stage. They will use super- conductor
technology. The two future devices are Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) and bio- chips (chips made up
of large organic molecules and genetically engineered proteins). These machines incorporate
Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) and contain millions of components into a single IC. The
development of super conductors was declared by Japan in 1978. They will increase the capacity
of computer millions of times.
The computers using bio-chips will be able to understand natural language, speak command,
capacity to see their surrounding and will have thinking power called Artificial Intelligence (AI).
In contrast to present DIPS (Data Information Processing System), the 5th generation computers
will have KIPS (knowledge Information Processing System) and Prolog is expected to play an
important role for this. The computers will understand natural languages and translate foreign
languages also.
There are different programs under way to develop fifth generation computer.
- ICOT program in Japan.
- MCC and DARPA project of USA.
- Alvey project of UK.
The famous 5th generation computer is fictional HAL 9000.
Vacuum Tubes
Vacuum tubes were the earliest electronic devices, which were used in the first generation
computer. The early television (TV) set also used such tubes. Because of the use of filament,
they generate a lot of heat and consume high power. It is a device for controlling flow of
electrical current.
Transistor
It is a semiconductor device that can switch circuits on and off, and store information inside
computers. It is the basic unit in radio, television and computer circuits. It is often used to
amplify the current flowing from one circuit to another. Transistor consists three connecting
parts: a base, an emitter and a collector.

C
B

Symbol of transistor

Introduction of computer

IC (Integrated Circuit)
An IC is an electronic circuit consisting a large number of components (transistors, resistors and
capacitors) built on a small silicon chip, i.e., all the components were squeezed on a single chip.
They may be SSI, MSI, LSI or VLSI.
Microprocessor
The microprocessor is a semiconductor device consisting of electronic logic circuits
manufactured by using VLSI technology. For example, 4004 microprocessor, 8008 model, 8080
model, 8085 model, 8086 model, 8088 model, 80286 model, 80386 model, 80486 model etc.
AI (Artificial Intelligence)
AI is the study of how to make the computers think and perform. The ability of computer to
understand natural language, speak command, capacity to see surrounding and have thinking
power, is called AI.
Exercise
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Write an explanatory note on History of computers.

Discuss about how the development of the PCs has extended the use of computer at present days.
Why is computer particularly important to modern society?
Describe the outstanding features of the first generation computers. What were the shortcomings in
the first generation computer?
What were the technological breakthroughs that made the second-generation computers?
What are the special features of fifth generation that makes it different from the other generations?
Explain the each stage of the computer development process along with the characteristics of each
stage.
What are the positive and negative impacts of computer in society?
Pentium III computers are fourth generation computers. Why?
Write short notes on:
Vacuum Tubes
Transistor
IC
Microprocessor
AI (Artificial Intelligence)
Explain in brief about Babbages Difference and Analytical engine.
What were the contributions of Lady Ada Lovelace and Herman Hollerith in computing?
Explain the evolution of computer describing the technologies used in different generations.
Write the full form of the following:
ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC, IBM, ICL

Introduction of computer
Types of computer
On the basis of work
According to the work, computers can be classified into following three types:
i.
Digital computer
ii. Analog computer
iii. Hybrid computer
Digital computer
The digital computer works on discrete data or discontinuous data. Digital watch is an example
of digital device as it goes from one value to the next without displaying all the intermediate
values. But it can display only finite number.
Each quantity in such a computer is represented by a binary number consisting of 0s and 1s. So,
all data that computer processes must be encoded digitally. The data may be letters, numbers or
other special symbols. All the operations are divided into counting and adding. For example,
multiplication can be carried out by repeated addition.
Digital computers are mostly used in the preparation of reports, results, tabulation and graphic
representations. Thus, they help in mathematics, engineering, business, accounting etc. So, they
are versatile in nature. Most of the computers used in Nepal are digital computers.
Digital computers are faster than analog computer and more accurate. For example, IBM PC,
IBM Compatible, Apple / Macintosh etc.
General-purpose digital computer
It is the one that can work on different types of programs input to it and thus be used in countless
application, i.e., these computers are designed to do wide range of information processing tasks,
from scientific to commercial file processing. It can be used to prepare sales report, banking
system, payroll etc.
Special purpose digital computer
They are designed to perform a specific task. The programs to carry out the task are permanently
stored in the computer memory. These types of computer work efficiently but such computers
are not versatile [can not be used in various field].
Analog Computer
The computer which can process analog quantities (continuous data) is called an analog
computer. Watch with hands is an analog device. Analog computers are designed to compute
physical forces such as temp, pressure, speed of rotation etc. The devices that measure such
quantities are analog devices, e.g., thermometer, barometer, speedometer, ammeter etc. Analog
computer operates by measuring rather than counting. They are slower than digital computer.
There accuracy is poor as compared to digital computer. They are mostly used in engineering
and scientific applications.

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Introduction of computer

Thermometer represents temperature in terms of a thread of mercury.

The speed of a car can be represented by the rotation of wheels.
The analog computer is used in hospitals to measure the size of stone in kidney and
mental disease diagnostics (CT scan) with photographs.

Hybrid Computer
A computer, which has a combined feature of both analog and digital computers, is called hybrid
computer. It helps user to process both continuous and discrete data. It can transfer data from
analog to digital and vice-versa. These computers are generally used in aeroplanes, scientific
applications, industrial control processes etc. Here are two functional examples:

During the launching of rockets, the analog computers measure the speed of the rocket,
temperature and pressure of atmosphere. These measurements are then converted into
digital signals and supplied to the digital computer to analyze the data for taking
appropriate steps on launching.

In an Intensive Care Unit (ICU) of hospital, analog devices measure heart function,
temperature and other signs of patients. Then these measurements are converted into
digital signal and fed to the digital computer that monitors the patients vital signs.

Differentiate between Digital computer and Analog computer.

Digital Computer
1. It works upon discontinuous data.
2. It operates by counting and adding.
3. Faster than analog computer.
4. Its accuracy is high.
5. Results are obtained after complete
computation.
6. It calculates
7. It is versatile (multipurpose) in nature.

Digital signal

Analog Computer
1. It works upon continuous data.
2. It operates by measuring.
3. Slower than digital computer.
4. Its accuracy is poor.
5. Output is continuous.
6. It compares and measures.
7. It is not versatile.

Analog signal

On the basis of size

According to size, computers can be classified into following four types:
i.
Super computer
ii.
Mainframe computer
iii.
Minicomputer
iv.
Microcomputer

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Introduction of computer

Super computer
Super computers are the most powerful and fastest computers among digital computers. These
computers are capable of handing huge amounts of calculations that are beyond human
capabilities. They can perform billions of instructions per second (BIPS). Some of the todays
super computers have the computing capability equal to that of 40,000 microcomputers. A
Japanese supercomputer has calculated the value of PI () to 16 million decimal places. These
computers cost in 15 20 million-dollar range (most expensive). They are mostly used in
weather forecasting, nuclear science (weapons) research etc. They need large space and
temperature controlled room. For example, CRAY X-MP/24, NEC-500, PARAM, ANURAG
etc. Among them, PARAM and ANURAG are supercomputers produced by India and are
exported to many European countries.

Mainframe computer:
Mainframe computer is a very large and powerful computing system. It is a general-purpose
computer system designed for large-scale data processing. It requires an area of 1000 sq. ft. It
supports large number of terminals upto 100 or more (i.e. one hundred persons can work at the
same time with one mainframe). They are suitable for big organizations, banks, and industries
etc. They can be used in networking systems. Some popular mainframes are IBM 1401, ICL
2950/10, ICL 39, and CYBER 170 etc.
Minicomputer
Minicomputers are similar to the mainframe computers but they are comparatively small and less
expensive. They are less powerful than mainframe and more powerful than microcomputers. So
they are called mid-range computer. They can support 50 terminals (i.e. 50 persons can work at
the same time with single minicomputer). They require area of 100 sq. ft. These computers are
useful for small business organizations, industries universities etc. For example, VAX 7500,
HCL, MAGNUM etc.
Microcomputer
A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose, low cost digital computer and uses
microprocessor. It requires small space, can be placed on a table or even kept inside a briefcase.
It is designed to use by one user at a time. So, microcomputer is also known as personal
computer (PC). These computers have central processing unit on a single chip. They are mainly
used in offices, homes, schools, shops, stores etc. They can be connected to other computer
systems in networking. For examples: IBM PC, Apple / Macintosh etc. The physical size of
microcomputer has reduced very much and found in the form of laptops, notebooks, palmtop,
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant), pocket computer etc.

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Introduction of computer
On the
basis of
Size

Micro

Mini

Mainframe

Smallest
among four
(can be put on
a table)

Larger than
Largest
mini but smaller
than super
computer (big
room)

Memory
capacity
Cost

Less

Larger than
micro & smaller
than mainframe
(small room
than
mainframe)
High

Cheap (as
compare to
other three)
1 MIPS

Less expensive

Expensive

Higher than
mainframe
More expensive

2-30 MIPS

30-100 MIPS

100-1000MIPS

No. of
terminals
Use

50

100

50 or more

Home / Offices
/ Personal use

Small
Organizations

Large
Organizations

Examples

IBM PC,
Apple Mac etc.

HCL,
MAGNUM

ICL 39,
CYBER 170

Scientific Research
/ weather
forecasting
CRAY X-MP/24
PARAM,
ANURAG

Speed

Very high

Supercomputer

On the basis of brand

On the basis of brand, computers can be classified into following three types:
i. IBM PC
ii. IBM Compatibles
iii. Apple/Macintosh
IBM PC (International Business Machine Personal Computer)
In 1923, IBM was established by merging Tabulating Machine Company, USA with other
companies. Nowadays it is one the leading company of the world in computer manufacturing.
IBM PCs are microcomputers produced by IBM Company. These computers are more reliable,
durable and have better quality. They are more expensive than IBM compatible computers.
IBM Compatibles
IBM Compatible Computers are IBM clones; computers that are internally almost the same as
the IBM PC but that cost less. That is, the internal architecture of IBM compatible is similar to
IBM PC. So they are called duplicate computers. They have same functional characteristics and

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Introduction of computer
principles of IBM PC. All the software designed for the IBM PC can be used in IBM compatible
computers. Examples are: Epson, Acer etc.
Apple/Macintosh
This computer is manufactured by Apple/Macintosh Company with totally different internal
architecture from that of IBM. They have their own softwares. The OS produced by Apple
Company for their Macintosh is called Mac OS. These computers are mostly used in desktop
publishing.
On the basis of Model
On the basis of model, computers can be classified into following three types:
i. XT (Extended Technology)
ii. AT (Advanced Technology)
iii. PS/2 (Personal System / 2)
XT Computers
The computers with 8086 or 8088 microprocessor, 128 KB of RAM, 10 MB of hard disk and 8bit bus are called XT computers. These computers are slow in processing 4.77 MHz and cannot
run advanced programs.
AT Computers
The computers with 80286 microprocessor, 16-bit bus and high memory capacity are called AT
computers. They are faster than XT computers and can run latest programs. The microprocessors
used in AT computer are 80386, 80486 and Pentium processors.
PS/2 Computers
Most of the computers manufactured after 1990, including laptop computers (small computers)
belong to this model. These computers use refined architecture making the computer faster than
AT computers. They can run almost all programs.
Exercise
1.
How can you differentiate a microcomputer from mainframe computer?
2.
How can you distinguish a super computer from a microcomputer?
3.
Why is a supercomputer not easily available like other computers?
4.
Briefly define the hybrid computer and state its application area.
Or
What is a hybrid computer? Give functional example of it.
5.
How can you differentiate a digital computer from analog computer? Also give the
examples of digital and analog device.
6.
Classify the computers according to the function (or principles of operation).
7.
Classify the computers according to brand.
8.
Why is IBM Compatible computer called duplicate computer?
9.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of microcomputers over minicomputer?
10. Explain different types of digital computer.
11. Write short notes on: (a) Digital Computer
(b) Super Computer

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