What is Gibbs phase rule? Why and how is it modified?

Define all terms

involved in it.
Ans : The phase rule, known as Gibbs Phase Rule, establishes the relationship between the
number of degrees of freedom (F), the number of components (C) and the number of phases (P).
It is expressed mathematically as follows :
P+F=C+2
A phase is defined to be a microscopically homogeneous and physically distinct portion of a system with
well defined boundaries separating that portion from its surrounding. For example water, ice and vapour
are three different phases. A phase is characterized by its structure- the atomic arrangement in it.
The number of components is the number of elements of which the system is made up of.
For example, for binary system -2 components, for ternary system 3 components
For binary, C = 2
For ternary, C = 3
Degrees of freedom are the variables which must be specified to completely define the system. Variables
as pressure, temperature and composition which can be independently changed without changing other
variable.
In metallurgical systems where pressure is regarded as remaining fixed at one atmosphere, the pressure
variable is often omitted and equation simplifies to:
P + F = C + 1 or
F=C+1P
During the solidification of pure metal , solid metal and liquid metal are in
equilibrium. Hence
the number of phases in equilibrium is 2 i.e., P = 2.
Phase rule for alloy system is given as
P+F=C+1
2+F=1+1
F=0
Which means that during the solidification of a pure metal, the temperature does
not change, it
remains constant. Thus the solidification of a pure metal occurs at constant
temperature, the
melting point or freezing point of the metal.

State and derive Lever Rule as applied to equilibrium diagram.

Ans : Lever rule is a mathematical principle with which we can calculate the proportions of two phases
or two micro-constituents in a two phase region. This rule is known as lever rule because of the
mechanical analogy which is used in calculation.
In this rule it is assumed that the weights of the two phases under consideration are suspended from the
ends of tie-rod. The ends and fulcrum are given by the intersection points of the temperature horizontal
line (corresponding to temperature at which the calculation is required ) with phase boundaries of the
two phases and the composition vertical respectively.

Consider an alloy containing C%B. To calculate the proportions of solid solution and
liquid at temperature T, draw the temperature-horizontal line SFL. This line cuts
the composition vertical at F and cuts the solidus line (the phase boundary at S,
and liquidus line at L. Hence the tie rod is the line SFL and fulcrum at F. The weight
of solid solution is supposed tobe suspended at S and suspended at L. Under
equilibrium , the moments must be balanced.
Hence weight of solid x SF = weight of liquid x FL
weight of solid / weight of liquid = FL / SF
% weight of solid = FL / SF x 100
% weight of liquid = SF/ SL x 100

What is effect of alloying elements on TTT curve. Explain with neat sketches.
Ans: The effect of Alloying element on the position and shape of the TTT curve can be
summarized below
i. Effect on the position of the S Curve: All the alloying element shift the S- curve towards the right.
Exception is only cobalt. All the alloying element except cobalt decreases the critical cooling rate of the
steel and hence increase the hardenability of the steel. (fig.(a))
ii. Effect on the shape of the S Curves: Austenite stabilizers do not change the shape of the S Curves.
It has only one nose. Ferrite stabilizers change the shape of S-curve they give two nose. The upper nose
is called pearlite nose and the lower nose is called bainite nose. (fig.(b))
iii. Effect on nose temperature: The austenite stabilizer Ni, Mn, Cu lowers the pearlite nose
temperature. All the ferrite stabilizer like Cr, Mo, V, W and Si raise the pearlite nose temperature. Al also
raises the nose temperature although it is austenite stabilizer. This effect is schematically shown in fig
(c) and fig (d) respectively

1. Define heat treatment. Explain the significance and steps in heat treatment practice.
What are principles of heat treatment?
Ans: Heat treatment is a stage in the fabrication of structures and is often
forgotten: but it has perhaps more wide-reaching and important ramifications than
many of the other stages in the fabrication of structures or components. Heat
treatment may be defined as an operation or combination of operations involving
heating and cooling of a metal/alloy in solid state to obtain desirable conditions
and properties which include better machinability, improved ductility,
homogeneous structure, etc.
Purpose of heat treatment :
One or the other heat treatment process is carried out in order to
(i) Cause relief of internal stresses developed during cold working, welding,
casting, forging etc.
(ii) Harden and strengthen metals.
(iii)Improve machinability.
(iv) Change grain size
(v) Soften metals for further (cold) working as in wire drawing or cold rolling
(vi) Improve ductility and toughness
(vii) Increase heat , wear and corrosion resistance of materials
(viii) Homogenise the structure; to remove coring or segregation
(ix) Improve electrical and magnetic properties.
(x) Spherodize tiny particles, such as those of Fe3C in steel by diffusion.
Stages of Heat Treatment Process :
(i) Heating a metal/alloy to definite temperature.
(ii) Holding (or soaking) at that temperature for a sufficient period to allow
necessary changes
(e.g.,austenitizing) to occur.
(iii) Cooling at a rate necessary to obtain desired properties associated with
changes in the nature, form, size and distribution of micro-constituents (such as
ferrite, pearlite, martensite, etc.).
Principles (fundamentals) of Heat Treatment :
Steel heat treatments are made possible by the eutectoid reaction in the ironcarbon system. All basic heat-treating processes for steel involve the
transformation or decomposition of austenite. The nature and appearance of thus
obtained transformation products develop a variety of useful and mechanical
properties in steels.
Cooling rate plays an important role in the transformation of austenite to pearlite
or martensite, etc. Heat treatment is effective only with certain alloys (e.g., Fe-C,

Aluminium bronze, etc.) because it depends upon, one element being soluble in
another in the solid state on different amounts under different circumstances. The
theory of heat treatment is based on the principle that an alloy experiences
change in structure when heated above a certain temperature
and it undergoes again a change in structure when cooled to room temperature.
Cooling rate is an important factor in developing different (soft or hard) structures.
Slow cooling from above the critical range in steel will produce (soft) structure
whereas rapid cooling (depending upon steel composition) will give rise to a
martensitic (hard) structure.

Differentiate clearly between

Annealing and Normalizing