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20

RESERVOIR SAND
MIGRATION AND
GRAVEL-PACK
DAMAGE:
STRESS-INDUCED
FORMATION DAMAGE,
SANDING TENDENCY,
AND PREDICTION

Summary
Characteristics of reservoir formations susceptible for sand production are
reviewed. The mechanical and hydrodynamic processes causing sand production, migration, and retention in reservoir formations are described and
modeled. Typical features of effective gravel pack designs are explained.
The various parameters affecting the gravel-pack efficiency are discussed.
Predictive models for sand filtration and retention in gravel-packs and
applications by means of typical test data are presented.

20.1 INTRODUCTION
As stated by Geilikman and Dusseault (1997), Sand production is a
fluid-saturated granular flow. It has been observed that fines migration
and well sanding tend to increase by rising water cuts beyond a certain
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threshold as a result of water-coning (or water-cresting) induced by

high rate production (Hayatdavoudi, 1999c, 2005). Hayatdavoudi (1999c,
2005) considers that five important parameters control the sand liquefaction process: (1) buoyancy of the fine particles, (2) variation of the effective density of sand, (3) pressure build-up in the near-wellbore region, (4)
weak cohesive cement between sand grains, and (5) low internal friction
angle. Hayatdavoudi (1999c) describes that the conditions inducing sand
problems include:
(1) lack of grain to grain cement (25% carbonates, oxides of iron, and
oxides of silica cement),
(2) very small sand grain size usually less than 5060  (very fine silt and
clay-sized material),
(3) under consolidation/compaction due to the deposition of sediments in
a viscous, low energy environment (i.e., turbidities),
(4) rise of the water table, water encroachment, and water coning, and
(5) decreased submerged weight of the particle under variable saturation
conditions.

Hayatdavoudi (1999c, 2005) explains that high production rates induce

sand production for several reasons. First, the pore pressure (net overburden stress) increases because of the lowering of the pore fluid pressure. Second, water invades the near-wellbore formation as a result of
water-coning (or cresting), which in turn alters the petrophysical parameters, including capillary pressure, osmotic pressure, and clay swelling
pressure. Consequently, the effective shear resistance of the formation
sand against the increasing pore pressure (or effective net overburden
stress) diminishes and conditions favorable for sand liquefaction are created. Similar reasons were also suggested by Dusseault and Santarelli
(1989).
Tremblay et al. (1998) report a communication being established
between injection and production wells 500 m apart in a reservoir through
a wormhole because of sand production. In fact, Tremblay et al. (1998)
point out that even in primary production, such as the cold production process for recovery of heavy oil from unconsolidated formations, essentially
facilitates production for better access to heavy oil by forming wormholes and/or cavities. Sanding also explains the high sand cuts observed
in some oil wells. Therefore, allowing sand production and not using
sand exclusion techniques, such as gravel pack and screen, is essential
for economic production of oil (Geilikman et al., 1994).

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20.2 PREDICTION OF SANDING CONDITIONS

USING A SIMPLE MODEL
Hayatdavoudi (1999c, 2005) developed a simplified model by modifying
the Spangler and Handy (1982) model. The inherent assumptions and
equations of this model is presented below.
The induced shear stress, i , in the direction of flow or its equivalent
pressure drop and the induced acceleration, ai , of the formation particles
can be related by Newtons second law as (Spangler and Handy, 1982)
i = mai

(20-1)

where m is the mass of the sand particle. On the other hand, the maximum, critical, or threshold shear resistance of the sand, including the
additional factors resulting from water invasion, is expressed as following
by Hayatdavoudi (1999c, 2005):



cr = c + v Pp Ps + Pos + Pc  tan cyc

(20-2)

where c is the effective cohesive strength of the formation sand lb/ft2 

and v is the effective vertical stress lb/ft 2 . Pp  Ps  Pos , and Pc denote,
respectively, the pore fluid, clay swelling, osmotic, and capillary pressures. cyc denotes the cyclic angle of internal friction. Therefore, sand
liquefaction occurs when the prevailing shear stress exceeds the threshold
shear stress, that is,
i cr

(20-3)

Neglecting the fluid acceleration effect, Hayatdavoudi (1999c, 2005)

expressed the induced acceleration of particles by
ai = 2 fsw
pv

(20-4)

where
pv is the induced velocity of particles and fsw is the shear wave
frequency. In case of the lack of information for Eq. (20-4), Hayatdavoudi
(1999c) recommends estimating ai by
ai  019g

(20-5)

where g denotes the gravitational acceleration.

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Hayatdavoudi (1999c, 2005) points out the importance of the buoyant

unit weight of the in situ particles when determining the particle mass,
and estimates the in situ particle mass by


ave
z
(20-6)
m=
g
where z represents the depth or height measured from a reference datum
(ft) and ave is the average specific weight of the formation sand lb/ft3 .
The latter is expressed as
ave =

1
in the + in the
water
2 oil zone

(20-7)

zone

in which the specific weights of the sand grains in the water and oil zones
are given, respectively, by
in

the

water zone

in

the

oil zone

w G
1+e

(20-8)

o G
1+e

(20-9)

where the void ratio, e, in terms of the fractional porosity, , is given by

the pore volume to solid volume ratio as:
e=

(20-10)

and w and o are the specific weights of the water and oil phases, and
G is the specific gravity of the sand grains, defined as the density of the
grain material divided by the density of water at 4 C temperature.

20.3 PREDICTION OF MASSIVE SAND

PRODUCTION USING A DIFFERENTIAL MODEL
Many models with varying degrees of predictive capabilities are available
for sand production. Here, the radial continuum model for massive sand
production, coupling fluid and granular matrix flows, by Geilikman and
Dusseault (1997) is reviewed. This is a physics-based approach that

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includes the essential ingredients of a sand production model. However,

applications to other cases, such as horizontal and deviated wells, and
different formations may require further developments.
The decline of pressure during production causes flow and stressinduced damage in the near-wellbore region. The increase in the
deviatoric stress above the yield condition in unconsolidated sandstone
formations causes instabilities and plastic flow leading to sand production.
As depicted in Figure 20-1, Geilikman and Dusseault (1997) consider two
regions for modeling purposes: (1) a yielded-zone, denoted by the subscript y and initiating from the wellbore and extending to a propagating
front radius, R = Rt, and (2) an intact-zone, denoted by the subscript
i and remaining beyond the propagating front of the yielded-zone. They
consider a two-phase continuum medium: (1) a viscoplastic solid skeleton, and (2) an incompressible and viscous saturated fluid. The modeling
is carried out per unit formation thickness.
Let p denote the fluid pressure (Pa). is porosity; K is permeability;
 is viscosity;
f and
s denote the fluid- and solid-phase velocities,
respectively; and r is the radial distance. The Darcy law is applied for
the mobile fluid phase as (see Chapter 7)

dp
= 
f
s 
dr
K

(20-11)

Note that the tortuosity is approximated as   10 considering a

coarse-grain formation. Assuming that the fluid and solid phases are

sand flow
flowing, yielded zone
propagation of yielding front
intact zone

intact zone
rw
wellbore

R (t)

Figure 20-1. Growing yielded zone and the intact zone around a producing well
(reprinted from Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, Vol. 17, Geilikman, M. B., and
Dusseault, M. B, Fluid Rate Enhancement from Massive Sand Production in Heavy-Oil
Reservoirs, pp. 518, 1997, with permission from Elsevier Science).

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incompressible, the volumetric balance equations (equation of continuity)

of the fluid and solid phases are given by

+  
f  = 0
t

(20-12)


+  1 
s  = 0
t

(20-13)

where t denotes the time. In the intact zone, the porosity, i , is assumed
constant. Thus, Eqs (20-12) and (20-13) simplify as
  i
f  = 0

(20-14)

 1 i 
s  = 0

(20-15)

Thus, the fluid velocities in the yielded and intact zones can be expressed,
respectively, by

f =

1 y
q t

2 y r
y s

(20-16)

qf t
2 i r

(20-17)

f =

Here, qt denotes the volumetric production rate of the fluid plus sand
system. qf t denotes the volumetric production rate of the fluid carrying
the sand. Similarly, the solid velocity in the yielded zone is given by

s =

q t

s

2 1 y r

(20-18)

qs t denotes the volumetric sand production rate. Therefore, substituting

Eqs (20-15)(20-18) into Eq. (20-11) and integrating yields the following
fluid pressure profiles in the yielded and intact zones, respectively:

  
qs
r

py cr = pw +
q
ln
 rw < r < R (20-19)
2 y Ky
1 y
rw
and
pi r = pe

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qf
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2 i Ki
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The porositypermeability relationship is described by the Kozeny

Carman equation as:
Ky
=
Ki

y
i

3 

1 i
1 y

2
(20-21)

Let V denote the yielded zone front velocity, given by:

V

dR
dt

(20-22)

in which R = Rt denotes the radial distance to the front. The consistency
and compatibility conditions for the fluid flow at the moving yielded
zone front (interface boundary) are given, respectively, by


i 
i V  = y
y V  r = R t
(20-23)
py = pi 

r = R t

(20-24)

Here rw and re denote the wellbore and reservoir radii, respectively, and
pw and pe are the fluid pressures at these locations. The consistency and
compatibility conditions for the solid flow at the moving front between
the yielded and intact zones are given, respectively, by


1 i  V = 1 y V
s 
(20-25)
Substituting Eqs (20-18) and (20-22) into Eq. (20-25), and solving the
resulting expression for the cumulative volume of solids production, Qs ,
yields


(20-26)
Qs t = y i R2 rw2
The volumetric rate of solid production is given by
qs =

dQs
dt

(20-27)

The yield function, F , for granular matrix is defined as (Jackson, 1983;

Collins, 1990; Pitman, 1990; Drescher, 1991)


 r
r + 
F=
c 
p = 0
(20-28)
2
2

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where r and  denote the radial and tangential stresses, respectively,

Pa c is the cohesive strength Pa  is a friction coefficient (dimensionless).
The stress equilibrium condition for the solid skeleton is given by
dr r 

+
e 
f
s  = 0
dr
r
K

(20-29)

in which e is the coefficient of the body force, approximated by, referred

to as the void ratio
e=

i
1 i

(20-30)

In the yielded zone, eliminating the tangential stress,  , between

Eqs (20-28) and (20-29) leads to:


dr
2
1
e


s  = 0

 r p + c 
dr
1 r
Ky f

(20-31)

subject to the conditions at the wellbore

r = pw 

r = rw

(20-32)

r = R t

(20-33)

and at the moving front

 r = py 

Thus, substituting Eqs (20-17) and (20-18) into Eq. (20-31) and solving
leads to the following expression for the radial stress in the yielded zone:


r r py r r




1 + e 
qs
rw r  2c

q
=0


1
2 y Ky
1 y
(20-34)

where  = 2/1 .
Incorporating some simplifying approximations into the preceding
equations, Geilikman and Dusseault (1997) obtain the following expression for sand production rate qs :

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 1 + e
1+e

 qs Pc Pw t
ln rDe /rDR 
2 i Ki 1 y



2c r  1
Ky y
ln rDR
DR
1  1 + e Pc Pw t  1
+
K i i
ln rDe /rDR 
+
 1
rDR
1  ln rDR

(20-35)
where rDR = Rt/rw and rDe = re /rw . Equation (20-35) can be numerically
evaluated assuming a wellbore fluid pressure history, represented by the
following decay function:


pw t = p + pc p  exp t/tp

(20-36)
where tp is a characteristic time scale, pc is some critical fluid pressure at
which the yield criterion is met, and p is the limit value of the wellbore
pressure for t >> tp .
The volumetric rate of fluid production is given by

 
K
qs t
qo t Ky y ln rre + 1
ln Rrt
y
w
i i
w
 
 
qf t =
(20-37)
Ky y
R t
re
ln r + K ln R t
i i

in which qo t is the rate of fluid production without any sand production,
given by
qo t =

2 Ki i
p pw t
 ln re /rw  e

(20-38)

Geilikman and Dusseault (1997) defined dimensionless sand production rate qD , time D , characteristic time p , and fluid production
enhancement ratio ED , respectively, as
1 + e

2 Ki i 1 y pc p 

(20-39)

D = t

2Ki i pc p 
 1 + e rw2

(20-40)

 p = tp

2Ki i pc p 
 1 + e rw2

(20-41)

qD = qs

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10

6
qD

2
3

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

/0.01
Figure 20-2. Dimensionless volumetric sand production rate vs. dimensionless time:
Curves 1, 2, and 3 are for  = 01 05, and 1.0, respectively (reprinted from Journal
of Petroleum Science and Engineering, Vol. 17, Geilikman, M. B., and Dusseault, M. B, Fluid
Rate Enhancement from Massive Sand Production in Heavy-Oil Reservoirs, pp. 518,
1997, with permission from Elsevier Science).

ED t =

qf t
qo t

(20-42)

The symbol tp denotes the characteristic time. Figures 20-2 and 20-3 by
Geilikman and Dusseault (1997) present typical solutions for the rate of
sand production and enhancement of fluid production.

20.4 MODELING SAND RETENTION

IN GRAVEL-PACKS
As stated by Bouhroum et al. (1994):
Sand production poses serious problems to tubular material, surface equipment and the stability of the well    . A popular method of combating sand
production is using gravel-packs. Gravel-packs have a protective function
to inhibit the flow of sand particulates into the well.

Bouhroum et al. (1994) essentially applied the Ohen and Civan (1993)
model, given in Chapter 10 with several simplifications for prediction of

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2.0
1
2
3

1.5

1.0

0.5

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

/0.01
Figure 20-3. Short-term uid production improvement vs. dimensionless time:
Curves 1, 2, and 3 are for  = 01 05, and 1.0, respectively (reprinted from Journal
of Petroleum Science and Engineering, Vol. 17, Geilikman, M. B., and Dusseault, M. B, Fluid
Rate Enhancement from Massive Sand Production in Heavy-Oil Reservoirs, pp. 518,
1997, with permission from Elsevier Science).

the gravel-pack permeability impairment by sand deposition. The important simplifying assumptions of this model are (a) the sand particles are
generated in the near-wellbore formation and deposited in the gravelpack, and (b) the clay swelling effects are not considered. As attested by
the results given in Figures 20-4 and 20-5, their predictions accurately
match the experimental values.

20.5 RESERVOIR COMPACTION

AND SUBSIDENCE
Production of oil and gas from petroleum reservoirs declines the pore fluid
pressure and increases the net overburden stress. In weakly-consolidated
or unconsolidated reservoir formations, this may cause reservoir formation compaction and ground surface subsidence. Examples of such
cases have been encountered in many places in the world, including the
Offshore North West Java field of Indonesia (Susilo et al., 2003) and

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Sand content in gravel by weight (%)

25

20
Simulation
Low flow rate

15

High flow rate

10

0
0

5
15
20
10
Distance form sand-gravel interface, cm

25

Figure 20-4. Simulation of experimental data for low and high ow rate proles of
migrated sand particles in a 7.5 gravel to sand ration gravel-pack (after Bouhroum
et al., 1994 SPE; reprinted by permission of the Society of Petroleum Engineers).

Sand content in gravel by weight (%)

30
Simulation

25

Low flow rate

20
High flow rate
15

10

0
0

5
10
15
20
Distance form sand-gravel interface, cm

25

Figure 20-5. Simulation of experimental data for low and high ow rate proles of
migrated sand particles in a 6.3 gravel to sand ration gravel-pack (after Bouhroum
et al., 1994 SPE; reprinted by permission of the Society of Petroleum Engineers).

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the Campos Basin of Brazil (Soares et al., 2003). Susilo et al. (2003)
report the occurrence of rapid surface subsidence reaching to the levels
of 1015 ft during a period of eight years in the Offshore North West
Java field.
Compaction reduces the porosity and permeability of the reservoir
formation, and therefore has two mutually opposing effects on petroleum
production. Porosity reduction enhances the production and permeability
reduction hinders the production. Soares et al. (2003) developed a simple
model for analysis of the effect of reservoir compaction on production by
means of a simple analytical steady-state radial flow model. This model
is described below with some modifications.
Assume a constant viscosity fluid, and slightly-compressible reservoir
fluid and formation. The oil density and reservoir permeability variations
with pressure are described, respectively, by:


1 
(20-43)
c =
 ppf T


1 K
cK =
K peff

1 K
=
K ppf

(20-44)
T

in which, T is the reservoir temperature, c and cK are the empirical

parameters denoting the isothermal compressibility and permeability variation coefficients, and peff denotes the effective overburden stress given
according to Nieto et al. (1994) and Bustin (1997) as:
peff = pob ppf

(20-45)

in which  is Biots constant, and pob and ppf are the overburden stress
and pore fluid pressure, respectively. Assuming constant average values
for the coefficients of the isothermal compressibility, Eqs (20-43) and
(20-44) can be readily integrated to obtain the following expressions:


 p = o exp c p po 

(20-46)

K p = Ko exp cK p po 

(20-47)

Where p ppf and the subscript o indicates the initial or reference condition. The reference pressure may be selected as being the condition under
which the effective net stress vanishes.

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Consider the radial flow of oil towards a well completed in a homogeneous formation undergoing compaction as a result of depletion by oil
production at a constant rate. Consequently, application of Darcys law
yields the following expression for the mass flux m
of the produced fluid:
m
= q = uA = 2 rh

K kro wc dp

dr

(20-48)

Where  , p, u, and kro wc denote the density, viscosity, pressure,

volumetric flux, and relative permeability at the connate water condition
for the oil, respectively, K and h represent the absolute permeability and
thickness of the reservoir formation, and r denotes the radial distance
measured from the well center-line. The following expression can be
derived by combining the above equations and integrating the resulting
differential equation analytically for m
= constant production rate (Soares
et al., 2003):

    
qw  exp c pw po 
r
1
ln c =
exp cT pc po 
2 hKo kro wc
rw
cT
1 exp cT pw po 

(20-49)

Where the total isothermal compressibility is defined as:

cT = c + cK

(20-50)

This result can be used to derive the following expression for the
reciprocal-productivity ratio index under a constant pressure drawdown
pressure p = po pwo = pc pw = constant:
qo
= exp cK po pc 
q

(20-51)

The slope of the straight-line fit of field data on a semi-log plot yields the
value of the cK product. Then, the above equation can be used to predict
the future effects of compaction on the production rate (Soares et al., 2003).

Exercises
1. Consider the typical parameter values given by Geilikman and
Dusseault (1994, 1996) for shallow sand-producing formations of eastern Alberta. i = 030 y = 040 Pe = 3450 kPa Pc = 3000 kPa

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P = 200 kPa re /rw = 200, and c = 00. The heavy oil gravity is

around 1418 API. Cohesionless sandstone formation thickness is
around 315 m. The oil saturation is 88% with gas dissolved in the
oil. The production rate of oil without sand production is less than
15 m3 /day. Tremblay et al. (1998) report 8000 cp heavy-oil viscosity and 3.0 D permeability sandstone formation. Make reasonable
assumptions for missing data. Construct plots similar to those given
in Figures 20-2 and 20-3.
2. Consider the following data given by Hayatdavoudi (1999c, 2005).
The vertical depth of a sandstone formation is 7005 ft. The effective
cohesive strength of the sandstone is 35 psi and the porosity is 29%.
The specific gravities of the oil and water phases are 0.80 and 1.08,
respectively. The actual specific gravity of the sand particles is 2.59.
The angle of the internal friction is 26 . The minimum sand particle
acceleration necessary for sand liquefaction is 019 g, where g denotes
the gravitational acceleration. Make reasonable assumptions for missing data. Determine the sand liquefaction potential of this formation
under the following scenarios:
a. The oilwater contact surface rises by 10 ft above its initial position
as a result of the water coning effect. Prepare a sketch of the system.
b. A properly designed completion technique helps lower the oil
water contact surface by 20 ft below its initial position. Prepare a
sketch of the system.
3. Derive Eqs (20-49) and (20-51). Describe the proper mathematical
manipulations and assumptions required for derivation and discuss
their implications.

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