Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Brian Shadwick
Contents
Introduction
Verbs to Watch
vi
Dot Points
Space
vii
ix
xi
xiii
Questions
Space
39
81
121
Summaries
Space
161
181
201
219
Answers
Space
237
247
259
271
Appendix
Data Sheet
282
Formula Sheet
283
Periodic Table
284
Science Press
iii
Contents
Notes
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Science Press
Contents
iv
Introduction
What the book includes
,QWKLVERRN\RXZLOOQGW\SLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQTXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVDVZHOODVVXPPDULHVIRUHDFKGRWSRLQWLQ
the Board of Studies syllabus for the following topics in the Year 12 Physics course:
6SDFH
0RWRUVDQG*HQHUDWRUV
)URP,GHDVWR,PSOHPHQWDWLRQ
)URP4XDQWDWR4XDUNV
Also included are typical experimental results for students to analyse if the third column of the syllabus indicates
WKDWVWXGHQWVVKRXOGFDUU\RXWUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQV
Format of the book
The book has been formatted in the following way:
1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus)
1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and 3.
1RWHWKDWWKHQXPEHULQJRIWKHVHUHTXLUHPHQWVLVWKHDXWKRUVFKRLFHDQGKDVEHHQXVHGWRPDNHUHIHUHQFLQJ
TXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVFOHDUHU7KHLQGLYLGXDOUHTXLUHPHQWVDUHQRWQXPEHUHGLQWKHV\OODEXVWKH\DUHVLPSO\
EXOOHWHGKHQFHRXUXVHRIGRWSRLQWVZKHQZHUHIHUWRWKHP
1.1.1 )LUVWW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV
UHTXLUHPHQW
1.1.2 6HFRQGW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV
UHTXLUHPHQWHWF
7KHQXPEHURIOLQHVSURYLGHGIRUHDFKDQVZHUJLYHVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIKRZPDQ\PDUNVWKHTXHVWLRQPLJKWEH
worth in an examination. As a rough rule, every two lines of answer might be worth one mark. Note that in many
DQVZHUVWKUHHOLQHVKDYHEHHQSURYLGHGDVWKHDPRXQWRIZULWLQJUHTXLUHGH[FHHGVWZROLQHVEXWWKHSK\VLFV
involved is worth only one mark.
How to use the book
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You may have done work in addition to this with your teacher as extension work. Obviously this is not covered,
but you may need to know this additional work for your school exams.
:KHQZRUNLQJWKURXJKWKHTXHVWLRQVZULWHWKHDQVZHUV\RXKDYHWRORRNXSLQDGLIIHUHQWFRORXUWRWKRVH\RX
NQRZZLWKRXWKDYLQJWRUHVHDUFKWKHZRUN7KLVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDTXLFNUHIHUHQFHWRZRUN\RXVKRXOG
spend more time revising later, and allow you to spend your study time more productively.
Science Press
Introduction
Verbs to Watch
account/account for
State reasons for, report on, give an account of,
narrate a series of events or transactions.
distinguish
Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or
different from, note difference between things.
analyse
Identify components and the relationships among
them, draw out and relate implications.
evaluate
Make a judgement based on criteria.
examine
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apply
Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation.
explain
Relate cause and effect, make the relationship
between things evident, provide why and/or how.
appreciate
Make a judgement about the value of something.
extract
Choose relevant and/or appropriate details.
assess
0DNHDMXGJHPHQWRIYDOXHTXDOLW\RXWFRPHV
results or size.
extrapolate
Infer from what is known.
calculate
'HWHUPLQHIURPJLYHQIDFWVJXUHVRULQIRUPDWLRQ
identify
Recognise and name.
clarify
Make clear or plain.
interpret
Draw meaning from.
classify
Arrange into classes, groups or categories.
investigate
3ODQLQTXLUHLQWRDQGGUDZFRQFOXVLRQVDERXW
compare
Show how things are similar and different.
justify
Support an argument or conclusion.
construct
Make, build, put together items or arguments.
outline
Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features.
contrast
Show how things are different or opposite.
predict
Suggest what may happen based on available data.
critically (analyse/evaluate)
Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge
DQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJORJLFTXHVWLRQLQJUHHFWLRQDQG
TXDOLW\WRDQDQDO\VLVRUHYDOXDWLRQ
propose
Put forward (a point of view, idea, argument,
suggestion etc) for consideration or action.
deduce
Draw conclusions.
recall
Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences.
GHQH
6WDWHWKHPHDQLQJRIDQGLGHQWLI\HVVHQWLDOTXDOLWLHV
recommend
Provide reasons in favour.
demonstrate
Show by example.
recount
Retell a series of events.
describe
Provide characteristics and features.
summarise
Express concisely the relevant details.
discuss
Identify issues and provide points for and against.
synthesise
Put together various elements to make a whole.
Science Press
Verbs to Watch
vi
Space
Dot Point
Page
1.
*UDYLWDWLRQDOHOG
'HQHZHLJKWDVWKHIRUFHDFWLQJRQ
DQREMHFWGXHWRDJUDYLWDWLRQDOHOG
1.2
1.3.
1.4
1.5
2.
2.1
'HVFULEH*DOLOHRVDQDO\VLVRISURMHFWLOH
motion.
2.4
11
2XWOLQH1HZWRQVFRQFHSWRIHVFDSH
velocity.
12
2.7
2.8
,GHQWLI\ZK\WKHWHUPJIRUFHVLV
used to explain the forces on an
astronaut.
17
17
Page
2.3
Dot Point
&RPSDUHTXDOLWDWLYHO\ORZ(DUWKDQG
geostationary orbits.
18
'HQHRUELWDOYHORFLW\DQGLWV
relationship with G, the mass of the
planet and satellite, and the radius
RIWKHRUELWTXDOLWDWLYHO\DQG
TXDQWLWDWLYHO\
6ROYHSUREOHPVXVLQJ.HSOHUV/DZ
of Periods.
21
23
23
24
3.
25
'HVFULEHDJUDYLWDWLRQDOHOGQHDUD
massive object in terms of its effects
on other masses.
25
'HQH1HZWRQV/DZRI8QLYHUVDO
Gravitation.
25
12
3.3
3.4
14
'LVFXVVWKHHIIHFWRIWKH(DUWKVRUELWDO
and rotational motion on rocket launches. 16
27
'LVFXVVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRI1HZWRQV
Law of Universal Gravitation in
understanding and calculating the
motion of satellites.
28
Science Press
vii
Space
Dot Point
3.6
Page
28
4.
29
4.1
29
4.2
4.3
4.4
30
30
4.5
4.6
33
([SODLQTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHFRQVHTXHQFH
of special relativity in relation to the
relativity of simultaneity.
34
([SODLQTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHFRQVHTXHQFH
RIVSHFLDOUHODWLYLW\WRWKHHTXLYDOHQFH
of mass and energy.
34
34
([SODLQTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHFRQVHTXHQFH
of special relativity in relation to mass.
35
([SODLQTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHFRQVHTXHQFH
of special relativity in relation to
length contraction.
36
([SODLQTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHFRQVHTXHQFH
of special relativity in relation to time
dilation.
37
32
33
38
31
4.7
32
'HVFULEHWKHVLJQLFDQFHRIWKH
DVVXPSWLRQRI(LQVWHLQVDVVXPSWLRQ
of the constancy of the speed of light.
$QDO\VHDQGLQWHUSUHWVRPHRI(LQVWHLQV
thought experiments about mirrors
and trains and discuss the relationship
between thought and reality.
Page
Dot Point
32
Answers to Space
33
237
Science Press
Space
viii
Page
1.
Current-carrying conductors
1.1
1.2
Dot Point
40
,GHQWLI\WKDWWKHPDJQHWLFHOGLQ
'&PRWRUVFDQEHSURGXFHGE\FXUUHQW
carrying coils or permanent magnets.
50
2.
Generating electricity
51
2XWOLQH)DUDGD\VGLVFRYHU\RIWKH
generation of electricity by a moving
magnet.
51
52
52
'HQHPDJQHWLFHOGVWUHQJWKB as
PDJQHWLFX[GHQVLW\
'HVFULEHPDJQHWLFX[LQWHUPVRI
PDJQHWLFX[GHQVLW\DQGVXUIDFHDUHD
2.6
$FFRXQWIRU/HQ]V/DZLQWHUPVRI
conservation of energy.
54
5HODWH/HQ]V/DZWRWKHSURGXFWLRQ
of back emf in motors and that this
opposes the supply emf.
55
2.2
40
2.3
40
'HVFULEHTXDOLWDWLYHO\DQGTXDQWLWDWLYHO\
the force between long, parallel
currentcarrying conductors using:
41
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.8
44
'HQHWRUTXHDVWKHWXUQLQJPRPHQW
of a force using: T
45
2.9
1.9
43
46
47
48
Page
62
62
3.
Generators
63
3.1
63
63
3.2
49
Science Press
ix
Dot Point
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
Page
4.4
4.5
66
66
67
4.9
67
4.
Transformers
71
4.1
71
&RPSDUHVWHSXSDQGVWHSGRZQ
transformers.
71
4.7
67
69
4.3
4.6
4.8
66
Page
65
Dot Point
74
74
75
75
76
76
5.
77
5.1
77
78
79
5.2
5.3
247
72
Science Press
Page
1.
Cathode rays
82
1.1
82
1.2
1.3
82
84
1.5
'LVFXVVTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHHOHFWULFHOG
strength due to point, positive and
negative charges.
85
1.7
'LVFXVVTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHHOHFWULFHOG
strength due to oppositely charged
parallel plates.
2.
93
2XWOLQH+HUW]VH[SHULPHQWLQ
measuring the speed of radio waves
and how they relate to light waves.
93
'HVFULEH+HUW]VREVHUYDWLRQRIWKH
effect of a radio wave on a receiver
and the photoelectric effect he
produced but failed to investigate.
94
94
,GHQWLI\3ODQFNVK\SRWKHVLVWKDW
radiation emitted and absorbed by the
ZDOOVRIDEODFNERG\LVTXDQWLVHG
,GHQWLI\(LQVWHLQVFRQWULEXWLRQWR
TXDQWXPWKHRU\DQGLWVUHODWLRQWR
black body radiation.
96
$VVHVV(LQVWHLQVFRQWULEXWLRQWR
TXDQWXPWKHRU\DQGLWVUHODWLRQWR
black body radiation.
98
99
99
2.7
2.8
87
'HVFULEHTXDQWLWDWLYHO\WKHIRUFHRQ
a moving charged particle in a
PDJQHWLFHOGDQGVROYHSUREOHPV
using:
F = qE
F = qvBsin
2.3
83
2.9
87
90
Page
1.11
1.4
Dot Point
101
'LVFXVV(LQVWHLQDQG3ODQFNV
GLIIHULQJYLHZVDERXWZKHWKHUVFLHQWLF
research is removed from social and
political forces.
102
Science Press
xi
Dot Point
3.
Transistors
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.9
Page
Dot Point
103
Page
4.
Superconductors
115
4.1
115
4.2
115
115
115
4.3
103
4.4
105
&RPSDUHTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHUHODWLYH
number of free electrons in conductors,
semiconductors and insulators.
107
107
4.6
116
4.7
116
4.8
117
118
108
108
4.9
109
109
4.5
119
119
110
259
110
Science Press
xii
Page
1.
122
1.1
122
$QDO\VHWKHVLJQLFDQFHRIWKH
hydrogen spectrum in the
development of the Bohr model.
1.3
2.5
134
3.
135
'HQHWKHFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHQXFOHXV
and contrast their properties.
135
135
'HQHWKHWHUPQXFOHDUWUDQVPXWDWLRQ
3.4
137
'HVFULEH)HUPLVLQLWLDOH[SHULPHQWDO
REVHUYDWLRQRIQXFOHDUVVLRQ
3.6
139
122
123
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FRQFHSWRITXDQWLVHGHQHUJ\
'HQH%RKUVSRVWXODWHV
'HVFULEHKRZ%RKUVSRVWXODWHVOHG
to a mathematical model to account
for the hydrogen spectrum.
3.2
125
125
1.8
1.9
130
,GHQWLI\GLIFXOWLHVZLWKWKH%RKU
model, including its inability to
explain spectra of larger atoms,
LQWHQVLW\RIDQGK\SHUQHVSHFWUDO
lines and the Zeeman effect.
130
2.
131
'HVFULEHWKHLPSDFWRIGH%URJOLHV
proposal that any kind of particle has
both wave and particle properties.
131
2.2
3.8
3.9
'HQHGLIIUDFWLRQDQGLGHQWLI\WKDW
interference occurs between waves
that have been diffracted.
132
'HVFULEHWKHFRQUPDWLRQRIGH%URJOLHV
proposal by Davisson and Germer.
133
Page
2.6
1.7
Dot Point
'LVFXVV3DXOLVLGHDRIWKHWKH
neutrino and the need to account for
WKHHQHUJ\HOHFWURQVHPLWWHGLQGHFD\
Evaluate the relative contribution of
electrostatic and gravitational forces
between nucleons.
141
142
'HVFULEH)HUPLVGHPRQVWUDWLRQVRI
a nuclear chain reaction in 1942.
146
&RPSDUHUHTXLUHPHQWVIRUFRQWUROOHG
and uncontrolled chain reactions.
147
Science Press
xiii
Dot Point
Page
4.
151
4.1
$VVHVVWKHVLJQLFDQFHRIWKH
Manhattan Project to society.
153
4.3
4.4
4.5
Dot Point
4.6
4.7
153
154
155
Page
155
271
Science Press
xiv
DOT POINT
Space
Science Press
Space
1. The Earth has a gravitational eld that exerts a force on objects both on it and around it.
'HQHZHLJKWDVWKHIRUFHDFWLQJRQDQREMHFWGXHWRDJUDYLWDWLRQDOHOG
1.1.1
Predict the weight of a 5 kg object on Earth compared to its weight on Jupiter, and explain the
reasoning behind your prediction. The gravitational acceleration on Jupiter is about 24.8 m s2.
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1.1.2
1.2
Weight
Use F = mg to determine the weight force of bodies on Earth and other planets.
1.2.1
Determine the weight of an object of mass 3.0 kg on Earth and on Mars which has a
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1.2.2
An object has a mass of 12 kg on Earth and a weight of 135.24 N on Saturn. Calculate the
YDOXHRIWKHDFFHOHUDWLRQGXHWRJUDYLW\RQ6DWXUQDQGWKHREMHFWVZHLJKWRQ(DUWK
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Science Press
Space
1.2.3
A mass is placed on a set of bathroom scales on Earth and the scales read 10 kg. The same
scales and the mass are taken to the Moon to show that the mass of an object is constant
regardless of where it is in the Universe. When placed on the scales on the Moon however,
the scales read 1.67 kg. Account for this reading.
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1.3
The table shows masses and diameters of the Sun, our Moon and the planets in the Solar
System.
(a)
Complete the fourth column of the table by ranking the gravitational force on each object
from smallest (1) to largest (11) given the values for the Sun, the Earth and Pluto.
E
RPSOHWHWKHIWKFROXPQRIWKHWDEOHE\SUHGLFWLQJWKHUHODWLYHVL]HRIWKHJUDYLWDWLRQDOIRUFH
&
on each object given the three values for the Moon, Earth and the Sun.
Object
Diameter of object
(km)
Gravitational force
(smallest (1) to
largest (12))
Gravitational
acceleration
(m s2 )
The Sun
1.99 1030
1 392 530
11
275.4
Mercury
23
4878
24
12 104
24
12 756
9.8
The Moon
7.35 1022
3467
Mars
6.43 1023
6794
27
142 984
26
120 000
Uranus
25
8.68 10
51 800
Neptune
1.03 1026
49 250
22
2320
Venus
Earth
Jupiter
Saturn
Pluto
3.58 10
4.90 10
5.974 10
1.90 10
5.69 10
1.27 10
1.6
1.3.2
(a)
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
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Science Press
Space
(c)
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d)
What will be the mass of the object on a planet where the acceleration due to gravity
is 2.5 times larger than that on Earth?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(e)
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.4
Perform an experiment to determine the value of the acceleration due to gravity and identify
reasons for possible variations from 9.8 m s2.
1.4.1
Outline an experiment you have done to determine the acceleration due to gravity.
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1.4.2
(a)
A group of students set up a pendulum and recorded the measurements shown in the table.
Length of pendulum
string (m)
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
2.00
20.0
28.2
38.6
40.0
44.9
49.9
56.5
Identify two factors which would have been kept constant if this experiment had been done correctly.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Science Press
Space
(c)
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d)
(e)
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
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.............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
I
, QGUDZLQJ\RXUOLQHRIEHVWW\RXVKRXOGKDYHLJQRUHGRQHSORWSRLQW,GHQWLI\ZKLFKSORW
point and explain why it should be ignored.
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J
7KHHTXDWLRQFRQQHFWLQJWKHYDULDEOHVIRUWKHVZLQJRIDSHQGXOXPLV
5HDUUDQJHWKLVHTXDWLRQWRPDNHJWKHVXEMHFW
T = 2
l
g
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K
VHWKHLQIRUPDWLRQLQ\RXUUHDUUDQJHGHTXDWLRQDQGWKHGDWDLQWKHUHVXOWVWDEOHWRGUDZD
8
graph which does show the relationship between the period of a pendulum and its length.
(i)
............................................................................................................................
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Science Press
Space
1.4.3
Recall three reasons why the acceleration due to gravity at different places on the surface of
the Earth varies slightly from the 9.8 m s2 value we usually use.
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1.5
Explain the relationship between the work done on an object which changes its position in a
JUDYLWDWLRQDOHOGDQGLWVJUDYLWDWLRQDOSRWHQWLDOHQHUJ\
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1.5.2
(a)
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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(b)
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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1.5.3
A satellite has 4000 J of work done on it. Does it move to a higher or lower altitude orbit?
Explain your answer.
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Space
1.5.4
KE
0
...............................................................................................................................................
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Ep
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HQHJUDYLWDWLRQDOSRWHQWLDOHQHUJ\DVWKHZRUNGRQHWRPRYHDQREMHFWIURP
'
LQQLW\WRDSRLQWLQDJUDYLWDWLRQDOHOG
1.6.1
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1.6.2
A satellite of mass 500 kg is boosted from an orbit of altitude 10 000 km to one of altitude
20 000 km. Given the diameter of Earth as 12 756 km, its mass as 5.97 1024 kg, calculate
the change in the gravitational potential energy of the satellite.
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Science Press
Space
1.6.3
Explain, in terms of the principles of physics involved, why gravitational potential energy is a
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1.6.4
Satellite X has its orbit around Earth changed from an altitude of 10 000 km to an altitude of
20 000 km. Satellite Y has its orbit around Earth changed from an altitude of 20 000 km to an
altitude of 30 000 km. Both satellites have a mass of 500 kg.
(a)
Predict the amount of work done on X compared to the amount done on Y and explain your
reasoning.
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(b)
Calculate the amount of work done on each satellite to see if your prediction was correct.
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1.6.5
(a)
Three spacecraft having masses m1 > m2 > m3 are in the same stable orbit around planet X.
Compare their gravitational potential energies and justify your answer.
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(b)
The three spacecraft are now moved to an orbit with twice the radius relative to the centre of
the planet. Compare the work which needs to be done on each. Justify your answer.
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(c)
The three spacecraft each undergo orbital decay and fall to identical lower altitude orbits.
Compare the changes in their kinetic energies. Justify your answer.
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Space
2. Many factors have to be taken into account to achieve a successful rocket launch, to
maintain a stable orbit and to return to Earth.
2.1
Describe the trajectory of an object undergoing projectile motion within the Earths
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2.1.1
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2.1.2
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2.2
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2.2.2
The table shows the results of an experiment where a ball was rolled along a smooth,
horizontal surface at 15 m s1 and then over the edge of a 150 m drop. The ball left the surface
and started to fall at time zero.
Time (s)
17.92
24.68
33.01
41.97
Science Press
Space
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2.3
Solve projectile motion problems using horizontal and vertical components and Newtons
equations of motion.
2.3.1
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(b)
its range
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2.3.2
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10
(b)
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2.3.3
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2.4
Explain the concept of escape velocity in terms of the gravitational constant, and the mass and
radius of the planet.
2.4.1
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show that escape velocity is independent of the mass of the object being put into orbit.
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11
Space
2.4.2
The escape velocity of Earth is 11.2 kps. That for Neptune is 23.6 kps. Give possible reasons
to account for this difference.
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2.4.3
Mercury has a mass of 3.58 1023 kg and a diameter of 4880 km. Venus has a mass of
4.92 1024 kg and a diameter of 12 104 km. Predict which has the greater escape velocity and
explain your reasoning.
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2.5
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2.6
Identify why the term g-forces is used to explain the forces acting on an astronaut.
2.6.1
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2.6.2
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2.6.3
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2.7.1
The diagram shows a stroboscopic photograph of a projectile which was released from
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VWURERVFRSHZDV+]DQGHDFKJULGVTXDUHRQWKHGLDJUDPUHSUHVHQWVFPFP
(a)
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Space
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2.8
Analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in terms of the Law of
Conservation of Momentum and the forces experienced by astronauts.
2.8.1
A rocket has a mass of 400 kg, 75% being fuel. It develops a thrust of 8000 N.
(a)
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(b)
Calculate its acceleration when half its fuel has been consumed.
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14
2.8.2
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'
are used to put astronauts into space.
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2.8.3
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2.8.4
A rocket has a mass of 30 000 kg, including 25 000 kg of fuel. It develops 360 000 N of
thrust. Calculate:
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15
Space
2.8.5
Explain, in terms of the Law of Conservation of Momentum, how a rocket takes off.
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2.9
Discuss the effect of the Earths orbital and rotational motion on the launch of a rocket.
2.9.1
Recall the optimum position on Earth and orientation of a launch in order to place a satellite
in orbit around the Earth.
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2.9.2
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2.9.3
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16
2.10 Analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a range of objects, including
satellites orbiting Earth.
2.10.1 Choose an object which undergoes uniform circular motion (do not choose a satellite in
orbit). With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the forces acting on this object.
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2.10.2 State the forces acting on a satellite in a stable orbit around Earth.
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2.11 Solve problems to calculate the centripetal force acting on a satellite in orbit about Earth using:
2.11.1 A 3000 kg satellite is orbiting Earth at an altitude of 250 km. Its orbital speed is 27 800 kph.
and the diameter of Earth is 12 756 km. Calculate:
(a)
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17
Space
2.11.2 A 150 kg satellite is orbiting Earth at an altitude of 272 km. Its orbital period is 90 minutes.
Given that the diameter of Earth is 12576 km, and its mass is 5.974 1024 kg, calculate the
centripetal force on the satellite.
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2.12.2 Explain why each type of satellite is ideal for the use you have given in 2.12.1 above.
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2.12.3 Complete the table to compare low Earth and geostationary satellites.
Low Earth satellites
Geostationary satellites
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18
2.13 Outline the contribution of one of the following to the development of space exploration:
Tsiolkovsky, Oberth, Goddard, Esnault-Pelterie, ONeill or von Braun.
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the mass of the planet, the mass of the satellite and the radius of the orbit qualitatively and
quantitatively.
2.14.1 'HQHRUELWDOYHORFLW\
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2.14.2 Imagine satellites orbiting Earth and Jupiter, both at altitudes of 2000 km. Compare their
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speeds.
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Space
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2.14.4 Three identical moons are in orbit around planets of masses M, 9 M and 16 M. The planets
have the same radii.
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2.14.5 Calculate the orbital speed of the Earth around the Sun given the mass of the Sun is
1.99 1030 kg, and its diameter is 1 392 530 km. The mass of the Earth is 5.974 1024 kg, its
diameter is 12 756 km, and the distance between the Sun and Earth is 150 000 000 km.
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20
2.15.1 Calculate the orbital period of Deimos, one of the two moons of Mars. Its average distance
from Mars is 23 400 km and its irregular shape averages about 13 km across. The mass of
Mars is 6.42 1023 kg, and its diameter is 6794 km.
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2.15.2 Calculate the altitude of an Earth satellite with a period of 12 hours. The mass of the Earth is
5.974 1024 kg.
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2.15.3 7
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of Periods to calculate the missing data in the following table:
Moon
Miranda
Ariel
Titania
Oberon
190 900
8.71
583 400
13.46
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21
Space
2.15.4 *HRVWDWLRQDU\VDWHOOLWHVRUELWZLWKDUDGLXVRINP8VHWKLVLQIRUPDWLRQWRQG
(a)
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(b)
the orbital radius of a satellite which has an orbital period of 4.0 hours
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2.15.5 Io, closest to the planet, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, furthest from the planet, are the four
moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo in 1610. There is an interesting relationship between
the orbital period (TRIWKHUVWWKUHHPRRQVHDFKEHLQJKDOIWKDWRIWKHQH[WPRRQIXUWKHU
from the planet. In other words:
TIo
0.5 TEuropa
TEuropa
0.5 TGanymede
Given the mass of Jupiter as 1.90 1027 kg and the orbital radius of Ganymede as
1.1 106 km, calculate:
(a)
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22
2.16.2 Two students are discussing orbital decay. Maria says that frictional forces between the
spacecraft and the atmosphere are responsible. Edward says that this is incorrect and that
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statements.
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2.17 Discuss issues associated with safe re-entry into the Earths atmosphere and landing on the
Earths surface.
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(b)
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Space
2.17.3 ,GHQWLI\DQGMXVWLI\WKHGLUHFWLRQDVWURQDXWVVKRXOGIDFHGXULQJWDNHRIIDQGUHHQWU\
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2.18 Identify that there is an optimum angle for re-entry of a spacecraft into the Earths atmosphere
and the consequences of failing to achieve this.
2.18.1 5
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(DUWKVDWPRVSKHUH
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2.18.3 7
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UHHQWU\FUDIWZKLFKGHWHUPLQHVLW
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3.1.1
'HQHLQJHQHUDOWKHFRQFHSWRIDHOGLQSK\VLFV
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3.1.2
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'HQH1HZWRQV/DZRI8QLYHUVDO*UDYLWDWLRQ
3.2.1
1HZWRQV/DZRI8QLYHUVDO*UDYLWDWLRQLVPDGHXSRIWKUHHVWDWHPHQWV5HFDOOWKHP
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3.2.2
HWHUPLQHWKHXQLWVRI1HZWRQVXQLYHUVDOJUDYLWDWLRQDOFRQVWDQWDQGXVHNQRZQYDOXHVWR
'
calculate its magnitude.
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3.3
3.3.1
Calculate the gravitational force between the Moon and the Earth. The mass of the Moon is
7.35 1022 kg, that of the Earth is 5.974 1024 kg, the diameter of the Moon is 3467 km, that
of the Earth is 12 756 km and the distance between them is about 406 676 km.
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25
Space
3.3.2
The mass of Jupiter is 1.9 1027 kg. Its diameter is 142 984 km. Calculate:
(a)
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(b)
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3.3.3
The radius of the Earth is 6378 km and its mass is 5.974 1024 kg. Calculate the acceleration
at an altitude of 15 000 m.
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3.3.4
Two moons have masses M and 4 M and radii R and 4 R respectively. Compare their
accelerations due to gravity.
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3.3.5
The mass of Mercury is 3.58 1023 kg. Its diameter is 4880 km. Compare its gravitational
acceleration with that of Pluto, mass 1.27 1022 kg, diameter 2320 km.
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Space
26
3.3.6
Calculate the gravitational force between two 60 kg students two metres apart.
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3.4
Predict the effect on the gravitational force between two objects of:
(a)
(b)
(c)
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3.4.2
Calculate how far an astronaut would need to be away above the Earth in order for his weight
WREHKLVZHLJKWRQWKH(DUWKVVXUIDFH
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3.4.3
(a)
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(b)
The satellite is boosted to double this altitude. What is the new gravitational force acting on
the astronaut?
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(c)
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27
Space
3.5
Given that the gravitational force holding an orbiting satellite in a stable orbit is also the
centripetal force acting on it due to its orbital speed, determine the relationship between the
orbital speed and the mass of the satellite.
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3.5.2
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3.6
Identify that a slingshot effect can be provided by planets for space probes.
3.6.1
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3.6.2
Explain the role of gravitational attraction between a spacecraft and a planet as the spacecraft
moves around the planet and accelerated due to the slingshot effect.
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Space
28
4. Current and emerging understanding about time and space has been dependent upon
earlier models of the transmission of light.
4.1
Outline the features of the aether model for the transmission of light.
4.1.1
List the properties of the aether as predicted by scientists in the 1800s, and justify their
perception of the need for each property.
Property of the aether
4.2
Justication
'HVFULEHWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW
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4.2.2
:KDWZHUH0LFKHOVRQDQG0RUOH\DWWHPSWLQJWRQGLQWKHLUH[SHULPHQW"
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4.2.3
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29
Space
4.2.4
(YDOXDWHWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW
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4.3
,GHQWLI\ZKDWZDVNQRZQDERXWWKHDHWKHUEHIRUHWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.3.2
'HVFULEHWKHUHVXOWVRIWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW
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4.3.3
([SODLQZKDWFRQFOXVLRQFRXOGEHGUDZQIURPWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.4
XWOLQHWKHHIIHFWRIWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQWRQVFLHQWLVWVLGHDVDERXWWKHDHWKHUDW
2
that time.
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4.5
'HQHJLYLQJDSSURSULDWHH[DPSOHVDQLQHUWLDOIUDPHDQGDQRQLQHUWLDOIUDPHRIUHIHUHQFH
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Space
30
4.5.2
An astronaut tied her mascot to a string and hung it from the ceiling. One day she noticed that
instead of hanging straight down, it hung at an angle.
(a)
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(b)
Identify the frame of reference when it hangs straight down. Justify your answer.
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4.5.3
Identify the frame of reference of the spaceship when the mascot hangs at an angle. Justify
your answer.
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4.6
XWOLQHDQH[SHULPHQW\RXKDYHGRQHWRGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQQRQLQHUWLDODQGLQHUWLDOIUDPHV
2
of reference.
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4.6.2
If you are in an inertial frame of reference you cannot tell if you are moving at a constant
velocity or if you are stationary. Why not?
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31
Space
4.7
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HVFULEHWKHVLJQLFDQFHRIWKHDVVXPSWLRQRI(LQVWHLQVDVVXPSWLRQRIWKHFRQVWDQF\RIWKH
'
speed of light.
4.8.1
Outline the essential problem with light, the aether and the principle of relativity.
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4.9
Analyse and interpret some of Einsteins thought experiments involving mirrors and trains and
discuss the relationship between thought and reality.
4.9.1
2XWOLQH(LQVWHLQVUVWWKRXJKWH[SHULPHQW
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4.9.2
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Space
32
4.10 Identify that if c is constant, then space and time become relative.
4.10.1 ,GHQWLI\WKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRI(LQVWHLQVVSHFLDOWKHRU\RIUHODWLYLW\
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'
LVFXVVWKHFRQFHSWWKDWOHQJWKVWDQGDUGVDUHGHQHGLQWHUPVRIWLPHLQFRQWUDVWWRWKHRULJLQDO
metre standard.
4.11.1 Explain why the standard of length changed from being the distance between two lines on a
SODWLQXPLULGLXPDOOR\EDUWRWKHGLVWDQFHOLJKWWUDYHOVLQWKRIDVHFRQG
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4.12 Analyse information to discuss the relationship between theory and the evidence supporting it
using Einsteins predictions based on relativity that were made many years before evidence was
available to support it.
4.12.1 , WZDVRYHU\HDUVEHIRUHH[SHULPHQWDOHYLGHQFHZDVDYDLODEOHWRVXSSRUW(LQVWHLQVVSHFLDO
theory of relativity. Outline one piece of evidence in support of his theory.
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4.12.2 &RPPHQWRQWKHVWDWHPHQWDWKHRU\LVXVHOHVVXQOHVVLWKDVVXSSRUWLQJHYLGHQFH
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33
Space
4.13 Explain qualitatively the consequence of special relativity in relation to the relativity of
simultaneity.
4.13.1 &ODULI\WKHWHUPUHODWLYLW\RIVLPXOWDQHLW\
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4.13.2 ([SODLQJLYLQJDQDSSURSULDWHH[DPSOHWKHFRQFHSWRIVLPXOWDQHLW\
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4.14 Explain qualitatively the consequence of special relativity in relation to the equivalence between
mass and energy.
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34
4.15.3 A proton has a rest mass of 1.673 1027 kg. Calculate its rest energy.
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4.15.4 (
LQVWHLQVPDVVHQHUJ\HTXLYDOHQFHKROGVLQDOOVLWXDWLRQVQRWMXVWQXFOHDUSURFHVVHV
That is, in all exothermic or endothermic chemical processes, the energy involved is
actually a result of mass to energy or from energy to mass.
(a)
This would seem to contradict the law of conservation of energy and the law of conservation
of mass. Comment on this statement.
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E
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Comment on this idea.
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(c)
an endothermic process?
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(ii)
an exothermic process?
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35
Space
4.17.1 The mass of an electron at rest is 9.11 1031 kg. Calculate its mass in a TV tube when it is
moving at 0.15 c.
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4.17.2 Calculate the mass of a proton, rest mass 1.673 1027 kg in a linear accelerator when it is
moving at 0.8 c.
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4.18 Explain qualitatively the consequence of special relativity in relation to length contraction.
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4.19.2 $
VSDFHFUDIW\LQJSDVW(DUWKDWFRQVWDQWVSHHGDSSHDUVWRKDYHDOHQJWKZKLFKLVRILWV
stationary length. Calculate how fast it is travelling.
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Space
36
4.19.3 $
VSDFHVKLSLQWKHVKDSHRIDPFXEHLHVKRUL]RQWDOO\SDVW(DUWKDWc. Describe its
shape as seen by an observer on Earth.
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4.20 Explain qualitatively the consequence of special relativity in relation to time dilation.
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4.21.1 An astronaut travelling at 0.5 c takes 10 hours ship time to reach his destination. Calculate
how much time has passed on Earth.
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4.21.2 $
VSDFHVKLSLHVSDVWDSODQHWDWc. The pilot and his girlfriend on the planet each wave at
the other for 4.0 seconds.
(a)
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(b)
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(c)
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37
Space
4.21.3 0
HVRQVKDYHDOLIHRIV+RZHYHUPHVRQVIRUPHGLQWKHXSSHUDWPRVSKHUHDVDLUSDUWLFOHV
DUHKLWE\FRVPLFUD\VWDNHVWRUHDFKWKH(DUWKVVXUIDFH&DOFXODWHKRZIDVWWKH\WUDYHO
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4.21.4 Star X is 8.0 ly from Earth. A spaceship travels at 0.5 c to reach the star.
(a)
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(b)
Calculate how long the trip takes as measured by the astronauts in the ship.
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(c)
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(d)
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4.22 Discuss the implications of mass increase, time dilation, and length contraction for space travel.
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Space
38
DOT POINT
Answers
Science Press
235
Answers
Notes
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Answers
236
Space
1.1.1
Weight on Jupiter will be 2.53 times greater than its weight on Earth (124 N compared to 49 N).
1.1.2
Mass
Weight
Measured in kilograms
Measured in newtons
Cannot be zero
Can be zero
Is a scalar quantity
Is a vector quantity
1.2.1
29.4 N, 11.17 N
1.2.2
1.2.3
The bathroom scales are calibrated in kilograms, but actually measure weight because they work by the mass on them
FRPSUHVVLQJDVSULQJ7KHFDOLEUDWLRQWKHUHIRUHWDNHVLQWRDFFRXQW(DUWKVJUDYLWDWLRQDOSXOO2QWKH0RRQWKHJUDYLWDWLRQDO
force is only about one sixth that of Earth, so the spring will only compress about one sixth as much. The scales therefore read
1.6 kg instead of 10 kg.
1.3.1
Correct values for (a) and (b) given in table. Your estimates may be different, but see how close you were. Gravitational
DFFHOHUDWLRQLVGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHPDVVRIWKHSODQHWEXWLQYHUVHO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRLWVUDGLXVVTXDUHG
Object
1.4.1
Gravitational acceleration
(m s2 )
The Sun
1.99 1030
1 392 530
11
275.4
Mercury
3.58 1023
4878
4.01
Venus
24
4.90 10
12 104
8.92
Earth
5.974 1024
12 756
9.8
7.35 1022
3467
1.6
The Moon
1.3.2
Mars
23
6.43 10
6794
3.72
Jupiter
1.90 1027
142 984
10
24.8
Saturn
26
5.69 10
120 000
10.54
Uranus
8.68 1025
51 800
8.63
Neptune
1.03 1026
49 250
11.33
Pluto
1.27 1022
2320
0.63
(a)
60 kg
(b)
588 N
(c)
223.4 N
(d)
60 kg
(e)
1470 N
Science Press
237
Space
A group of students set up a pendulum and recorded the measurements shown in the table.
Length of pendulum string (m)
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
2.00
20.0
28.2
34.8
40.0
44.9
49.9
56.5
1.00
1.41
1.74
2.00
2.25
2.49
2.83
1.00
1.99
3.72
4.00
5.06
6.20
8.00
(b)
See above.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
g 2l/T 2
(h)
L
0ERIOD S
(a)
2.5
,ENGTH M
1.4.2
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0.5
1.5
Length (m)
1.4.3
Value for acceleration due to gravity will vary as altitude varies, because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, so at sea level at
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poles), type of, and amount of rock in the crust underneath the object could cause very slight variations.
1.5.1
Work is done on an object whenever an applied force causes a change in energy of the object. When a gravitational force (or
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the gravitational potential energy the object loses (or gains).
1.5.2
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(b)
gravity
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gravity, then it moves to a lower orbit. If the source is its engines and these are providing an impulse away from the Earth,
then it moves to a higher orbit.
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gravitational force as it travels away from the Sun, so its kinetic energy decreases and will also become zero if it reaches
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falls towards the planet, its gravitational potential energy will decrease (its kinetic energy increases). If GPE decreases from
zero, it must become negative in value.
1.6.4
(a)
Your prediction could be anything less for X, less for Y, same for each. The most logical is the same for each based
on the fact that they both have their orbit increased by the same amount.
Science Press
Space
238
1.6.5
(b)
Calculations show that the initial EP of X is 3.119 1010-DQGQDOLV10 J for an increase of 5 107 J.
The initial EP of Y is 3.114 1010-DQGQDOLV10 J also for an increase of 5 107 J.
(a)
(b)
The work needed to put the three spacecraft into a higher, identical orbit is directly proportional to their masses also
(W = Fs = mgs. Note that g is the value of the acceleration due to gravity of planet X at the altitude of the orbit). This
makes the work done on m1 > m2 > m3.
(c)
As the objects fall to a lower orbit they lose gravitational potential energy and gain kinetic energy. If they all end up
at the same altitude, then the loss of EP and gain in KE for each will be the same, but EP loss will depends on their
masses, so KE gain will also. Therefore, KE of m1 > m2 > m3.
2.1.1
Horizontal component of its motion is constant velocity (zero acceleration), while the vertical component is accelerated by
gravity.
2.1.2
2.2.1
Horizontal and vertical components of the motion of a projectile are independent of each other.
Horizontal component of its motion is constant velocity (zero acceleration).
Vertical component is constantly accelerated (by gravity).
2.2.2
Using Pythagoras,
at t = 1,
so
therefore
at t = 2,
so
therefore
at t = 3,
so
therefore
at t = 4,
so
therefore
So, change in velocity each second = 9.8 m s1, so acceleration is constant at 9.8 m s2ZKLFKLVFRQVLVWHQWZLWK*DOLOHRVDQDO\VLV
2.3.1
2.3.2
(a)
6.32 s
(b)
948.7 m
(c)
(a)
160 m s1
(b)
68.9 m
(c)
2.3.3
115.5 m
2.4.1
2.4.2
Either the mass of Neptune is larger than the mass of Earth, or its radius is smaller, or the combination mass/radius is larger
for Neptune than for Earth.
2.4.3
For Mercury, mass/radius = 1.475 1020, for Venus this ratio is 8.13 1020, therefore this would indicate escape velocity for
9HQXVLVKLJKHUWKDQHVFDSHYHORFLW\RI0HUFXU\)URPWKHHTXDWLRQHVFDSHYHORFLWLHVIRU0HUFXU\LVPV1, for Venus it
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Science Press
239
Space
2.6.1
It is simpler to use than an absolute force scale, and communicates the same relative forces acting on astronauts of different
masses.
2.6.2
(a)
3.75
(b)
3.75
2.6.3
2.75
2.7.1
(a)
0.625 m s1
(b)
2.352 m s1
(c)
(d)
0.28 m
(e)
0.84 s
(f)
0.525 m
(a)
10.2 m s2
(b)
22.2 m s2
(c)
3.265
2.8.1
2.8.2
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discarded, lessening the mass for the second stage engines and so making their thrust more effective and it also reduces the
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4
3
g-force
2
0
0
2.8.3
As fuel is used the mass of the rocket decreases and because the thrust is constant, the force on the rocket stays the same, so
the acceleration (as per F = ma) must increase.
2.8.4
(a)
2.2 m s2
(b)
62.2 m s2
(c)
7.35
2.8.5
2.9.1
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rotational speed is greatest.
Science Press
Space
240
2.9.3
If the rocket is launched too early, or in the wrong direction, it will reach its destination before Mars gets to the same position.
If launched too late, Mars will have passed the intercept point before the rocket gets there.
0OSITION OF -ARS AT LAUNCH
,AUNCH LATE -ARS GONE
0OSITION OF %ARTH AT LAUNCH
0OSITION OF -ARS AFTER FLIGHT
,AUNCH EARLY -ARS NOT THERE
2.10.1
For example: An electron in orbit about a nucleus is moving with uniform circular motion. The centripetal force is provided
by the electrostatic force of attraction between the positive charge on the protons in the nucleus and the negative charge on the
electrons.
.EGATIVE ELECTRON
#ENTRIPETAL FORCE ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION
0OSITIVE NUCLEUS
#IRCULAR ORBIT
2.10.2
2.10.2
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2.11.1
(a)
(b)
2.11.2
2.12.1
2.12.2
LEO satellites cover the entire surface of the Earth at least once per day and, being much lower, can see more detail in the
things they observe (reading car number plates, identifying faces, seeing a golf ball on a golf green). They are therefore useful
for spy activities.
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therefore able to be used to predict weather in other places.
2.12.3
Low Earth satellites
2.13
Geostationary satellites
Altitude 35 800 km
Equatorial orbit
Answers will vary according to the scientist chosen check your text for details.
Science Press
241
Space
2.14.1
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2.14.2
The orbital speed of the satellite around Jupiter would have to be greater than that of the satellite around Earth if both are to be
in stable orbits because the gravitational pull of Jupiter is greater than that of Earth.
2.14.3
(a)
(b)
12 : 4 : 3
(a)
1 : 9 : 16
(b)
1:3:4
2.14.4
2.14.5
2.15.1
133240.6 s = 37 hours
2.15.2
20 229.2 km
2.15.3
A = 129 643 km
B = 2.51 days
C = 436 464 km
2.15.4
2.15.5
(a)
5.075 hours
(b)
12 798.6 km
(a)
4.37 105 km
(b)
2.16.1
Friction between the satellite and the atmosphere reduces the speed of the satellite, so gravitational forces can attract it closer
to Earth where the denser atmosphere will provide greater frictional forces which will slow it even more and allow gravity to
pull it even closer to Earth, and so on.
2.16.2
Both students are correct in that each factor contributes to orbital decay, but both are incorrect in assuming that their factor is
the only one involved. Both frictional forces to slow the craft and gravity are needed before orbital decay can occur. Without
the slowing of the craft due to friction, gravity will simply keep it in a stable orbit, and without gravity, the craft would not be
pulled to Earth.
2.17.1
(a)
Because air is one of the best heat insulators, the most effective heat protection is the cushion of air that builds up in
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that absorb much of the heat energy as they vaporise.
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shuttles. These are 90% air (an excellent insulator) and are painted with a waterproof silicon sealant between each
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survival of the astronauts or the craft.
2.18.3
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Every object in the Universe attracts every other object with a gravitational force.
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Science Press
Space
242
3.2.2
3.3.1
1.702 1020 N
3.3.2
(a)
247.95 N
(b)
24.795 m s2
3.3.3
9.75 m s2
3.3.4
gM : g4M = 4 : 1
3.3.5
3.3.6
6 108 N attraction
3.4.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
3.4.2
1.93 105 km
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(b)
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The difference can be accounted for in rounding off errors and approximations of values used.
3.5.1
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satellite.
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rotational kinetic energy from the planet to linear kinetic energy of the spacecraft.
3.6.2
Gravitational forces draw the spacecraft close enough to the planet so that the slingshot collision can occur, but gravitational
forces are not responsible for the increase in speed that results. Gravitational forces which increase the speed of the spacecraft
as it approaches the planet (and decrease its speed for a shorter time as it recedes from the planet) do contribute to a small
amount of speed increase, but this is in addition to the slingshot effect.
4.1.1
List the properties of the aether as predicted by scientists in the 1800s, and justify their perception of the need for each
property.
Property of the aether
4.2.1
Justication
Fill space
Be transparent
It cannot be detected.
Transfer of energy over long distances requires the medium transmitting the wave to be highly
elastic otherwise signicant amounts of energy will be lost to the particles of the medium.
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vibrations from external sources as these would blur the light pattern results. Floating the apparatus on mercury enabled them
to rotate it to try to detect the expected interference patterns from different directions. The interferometer used by Michelson
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existed, then the light rays travelling with and against the aether should interfere with each other more than the rays travelling
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Science Press
243
Space
4.2.2
They were looking for a difference in the speed of light relative to the Earth depending on the direction of its travel through
the aether.
4.2.3
If the aether existed, then the light rays travelling with the aether and against the Earth should interfere with each other more
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Many accepted the experimental null result as evidence that the aether did not exist, others still search for the aether, blaming
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4.5.1
A frame of reference that is not accelerating is known as an inertial frame of reference. A spaceship at constant velocity in
deep space would be an inertial frame of reference. Motion cannot be detected in an inertial frame of reference. Motion is
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4.5.2
(a)
Craft was no longer an inertial frame of reference. Craft was accelerating in the opposite direction to the angle of
hang.
(b)
Inertial frame of reference. If the craft was accelerating, inertial forces would be noticeable (the mascot would not
hang vertically down).
4.5.3
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reference. Motion may appear different from different frames of reference.
4.8.1
If the aether permeated all matter, then measurements of the speed of light made from an object moving with constant velocity
would give different values, depending on which way the object was moving relative to the aether. These measurements
would enable the observer to determine that they were in an inertial frame of reference. This would violate the principle of
relativity.
4.9.1
Einstein wondered: Suppose I am sitting in a train travelling at the speed of light. If I hold a mirror in front of me, will I see
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to an outside point. This violates the principle of relativity.
Yes. This means that light would travel at its normal speed relative to the train. This does not violate the principle of relativity.
However, it also means that, relative to a stationary observer outside the train, light would have to travel at twice its usual
speed!
4.9.2
Einstein concluded that, if we accept that the principle of relativity can never be violated, then:
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time continuum three dimensions of space and time.
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:
found to record less time passing than an identical clock kept stationary at the airport.
Science Press
Space
244
4.12.2
Answers will vary you may support the statement as long as you give supporting evidence, or you may disagree, but must
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evidence, but because of the strength of the mathematics describing them were accepted and eventually proven correct
as technology advanced to catch up with them. In addition, the existence of a theory will provide a direction for further
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experimental evidence for it exists or not.
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idea. At speeds approaching that of light, events that are simultaneous in one frame of reference, may not be simultaneous in
another frame of reference.
4.13.2
An astronomer sees two supernova explosions appear in his telescope at exactly the same time. However, when he checks his
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a long time before the closer one.
4.14
4.15.1
4.15.2
4.15.3
1.506 1010 J
4.15.4
(a)
The mass changes in normal chemical reactions are so small that they are not detected by any instruments normally
used. If we consider mass and energy to be independent substances then both conservation laws would be broken by
(LQVWHLQVSURSRVDOE = mc2). Because the amounts of mass involved are so small however, we do not detect any
change and therefore do not consider either law broken.
E
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conservation law can be considered.
(c)
In an endothermic process, energy put into the system would be converted into mass. In an exothermic process, mass
is converted into energy and this is the source of the energy released.
4.16
7
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4.17.1
9.214 1031 kg
4.17.2
2.788 1027 kg
4.18
Moving objects always appear to be shorter when measured from a different frame of reference. To generalise, observers from
outside a moving system will always see the system as shorter than its real length. This effect is known as length contraction.
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4.19.1
120 m
4.19.2
0.8 c
4.19.3
The spaceship will appear to be 12 m wide but will retain its 20 m height and thickness because there in no relative motion in
those two directions.
4.20
Time in a moving frame of reference always passes more slowly than time in any other frame of reference. This effect
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reference of the observer.
4.21.1
11.5 hours
4.21.2
(a)
5.0 s
(b)
5.0 s
(c)
Because both the pilot and the girlfriend are in inertial frames of reference, special relativity works for the
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both think a longer time has passed in their frame of reference.
Science Press
245
Space
4.21.3
0.99 c
4.21.4
Star X is 8.0 ly from Earth. A spaceship travels at 0.5 c to reach the star.
4.22
(a)
16 years
(b)
13.86 years
(c)
6.93 ly
(d)
0.5 c
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The nearest galaxy to us, Andromeda galaxy, is about 2 million light years away. If we could travel at the speed of light it
would take us 2 million years to get there. The fastest any space probe has gone is about 150 000 kph following a slingshot
around the Sun. This would involve temperatures humans could not survive. The fastest space probes following slingshots
around Mars, Jupiter and Saturn have travelled at about 100 000 kph. At this speed it would take us about 21 600 000 000
years to get to Andromeda.
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2
travel, and it would take less time to get there than we think well, less time as far as the astronauts are concerned, but still a
long time from an Earth perspective.
Unfortunately, while the time and length contractions work in our favour, relativistic mass increases mean that we would need
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mass as it approaches the speed of light. None of this is possible. So, with current technology, space travel outside the Solar
System is not feasible.
Within the Solar System, where distances are much smaller (say 5900 000 000 km to Pluto the furthest planet), travelling at
100 000 kph would take us 6.7351598 years. The time dilation effect would make this seem like 6.7351597 years a saving
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Space
246
4.7.2
Quarks are fundamental particles within the nucleus. They combine to make larger particles such as the proton and neutron.
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4.7.3
(a)
(b)
4.7.4
Leptons are fundamental particles which include the electron, and various neutrinos.
4.7.5
(a)
Fundamental particles are those which cannot be broken down into component parts they exist as an integral whole
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(b)
F
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