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LIPID
LIPIDS, MEMBRANE AND
CELLULAR TRANSPORT
CHAPTER VII

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LIPID

GENERAL FUNCTION OF
LIPIDS

Lipid is not a polymer

But they still high tendency to associate through non
covalent forces
They characterized by their structure
a

Membrane or barrier of cell membrane that

control materials in and out of the cell
Energy storage (triacylglyceride)
Cushioning (adipose tissue)

a-hydrophilic head
b-hydrophobic tail
b

Transmission(signal transduction)
Communication between cell (steroid and
hormone)

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TRANS FATTY ACIDS

Natural foods (unprocessed foods) contain two
main types of fatty acids - saturated and
unsaturated
Saturated fatty acids - which come from animal fats
(meat, lard, dairy products) and tropical oils such as
coconut and palm oils - raise the levels of LDL
cholesterol
Unsaturated fats - which come from vegetable oils in general do not increase cholesterol levels, and
may reduce them

TRANS FATTY ACIDS

Trans fatty acids (trans fats) are a third form of fatty
acids
While trans fats do occur in tiny amounts in some
foods (particularly foods from animals), almost all
the trans fats now in our diets come from an
industrial process that partially hydrogenates (adds
hydrogen to) unsaturated fatty acids
Trans fats, then, are a form of processed vegetable
oils

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FATTY ACIDS:
THE COMMON NAMES
Saturated
Fatty Acids

TRANS FATTY ACIDS

Unsaturated
Fatty Acids

Propionic Acid
CH3CH2COOH

Myristoleic acid
CH3(CH2)3CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

Butyric Acid
CH3(CH2)2COOH

Palmitoleic acid
CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

Valeric Acid
CH3(CH2)3COOH

Sapienic acid
CH3(CH2)8CH=CH(CH2)4COOH

Caproic Acid
CH3(CH2)4COOH

Oleic acid
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

Example of
trans fatty
acids:
Burger and fries

What Is Unhealthy About Trans Fats?

The difference between
cis and trans fatty acids
structure

Trans fats increase total cholesterol levels and

LDL cholesterol levels; worse (and in contrast
to saturated fats), they reduce HDL
cholesterol levels
Trans fats also appear to interfere with the
body's usage of omega-3 fatty acids, which
are important for heart health

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TRIACYLGLYCEROL

TRIACYLGLYCEROL
Oil

Unsaturated fatty acid

Liquid at room temperature
Can undergo hydrogenation process

Fat
1 Fatty Acid + 3 Glycerol = Triacylglycerol

Mainly saturated fatty acid

Solid/semisolid at room temperature

Remove water (condensation)

Linked by ester bond

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GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS

GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS

Glycerophospholipids or Phosphoglycerides are glycerol

based phospholipids
They are the main component of biological membranes such
as phospholid bilayer
Structures
It contains a glycerol core with fatty acids
They can be the same or different subunits of fatty acids
Carbon 1 (tail, non-polar) contains a fatty acid,
typically saturated.
Carbon 2 (tail, non-polar) contains a fatty acid,
typically unsaturated and in the cis conformation, thus
appearing "bent
Carbon 3 (head, polar) contains a phosphate group or an
alcohol attached to a phosphate group

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GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS
Uses in membranes:
Each glycerophospholipid molecule consists of a
small polar head group and two long hydrophobic chains
In the cell membrane, the two layers of phospholipids are
arranged as follows:
The hydrophobic tails point to each other and form a fatty, hydrophobic center
The ionic head groups are placed at the inner and outer surfaces of the cell
membrane

This is a stable structure because the ionic hydrophilic head

groups interact with the aqueous media inside and outside
the cell, whereas the hydrophobic tails maximize hydrophobic
interactions with each other and are kept away from the
aqueous environments

SPHINGOLIPIDS
Sphingolipids are a class of lipids containing a
backbone of sphingoid bases, a set of aliphatic amino
alcohols that includes sphingosine
Play important roles in signal transmission and cell
recognition
Sphingolipidoses, or disorders of sphingolipid
metabolism, have particular impact on neural tissue
A sphingolipid with an R group consisting of a
hydrogen atom only is a ceramide
Other common R groups include phosphocholine,
yielding a sphingomyelin, and various sugar monomers
or dimers, yielding cerebrosides and globosides,
respectively
Cerebrosides and globosides are collectively known
as glycosphingolipids

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SPHINGOLIPIDS

SPHINGOLIPIDS
Simple Sphingolipids
Ceramides

Complex Sphingolipids:
Sphingomyelins
Glycosphingolipids
Cerebrosides
Sulfatides
Gangliosides
Inositol

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SPHINGOLIPIDS
Sphingoid bases are the fundamental building
blocks of all sphingolipids
The main mammalian sphingoid bases are
dihydrosphingosine and sphingosine, while
dihydrosphingosine and phytosphingosine are
the principle sphingoid bases in yeast
Sphingosine,
dihydrosphingosine,
and
phytosphingosine may be phosphorylated

SPHINGOLIPIDS
FUNCTIONS:
Protect the cell surface against harmful
environmental factors by forming a
mechanically
stable
and
chemically
resistant outer leaflet of the plasma
membrane lipid bilayer
Cell recognition and signalling

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STEROID

STEROIDS
FUNCTIONS:
Steroid hormones
Produce sex difference or support reproduction androgens, estrogens, and progestagens
Corticosteroids include glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

Glucocorticoids:
Regulate many aspects of metabolism and immune function, whereas mineralocorticoids
help maintain blood volume and control renal excretion of electrolytes
Most medical 'steroid' drugs are corticosteroids

4 fused-rings..3 CYCLOHEXANE, 1 CYCLOPENTANE

Anabolic steroids:
A class of steroids that interact with androgen receptors to increase muscle and bone
synthesis
There are natural and synthetic anabolic steroids
In popular language, the word "steroids" usually refers to anabolic steroids

Cholesterol, which modulates the fluidity of cell membranes and is the principal
constituent of the plaques implicated in atherosclerosis

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MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
Integral proteins
Span lipid bilayer
Transmembrane proteins
Hydrophobic regions consist of one or more stretches of nonpolar
amino acids
Often coiled into alpha helices
EXTRACELLULAR
SIDE

N-terminus

C-terminus
a Helix

CYTOPLASMIC
SIDE

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MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Signal
Enzymes

Glycoprotein

Receptor

ATP

Transport

Enzymatic activity

Signal transduction

Cell-cell recognition

Intercellular joining

Attachment to the
cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM)

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THE ROLE OF MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATES

IN CELL-CELL RECOGNITION
Cells recognize each other by binding to surface
molecules, often carbohydrates, on the plasma
membrane

ER
Transmembrane
glycoproteins

Synthesis and Sidedness

of Membranes:
Membranes distinct inside
and outside faces

Carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids (glycolipids)

or more often to proteins (glycoproteins)

Plasma membrane is added

to by vesicles from ER &
Golgi

Much variability of extracellular carbohydrates among

species, individuals, cell types in an individual

Secreted
and
integral
membrane proteins, lipids
and
associated
carbohydrates transported
to membrane by these
vesicles

Secretory
protein
Glycolipid
Golgi
apparatus

Vesicle

Plasma membrane:
Cytoplasmic face
Extracellular face
Secreted
protein

Transmembrane
glycoprotein

Plasma membrane:

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TRANSPORT ACROSS CELLULAR MEMBRANES

To exchange materials with surroundings in part

to take in nutrients and give off waste

Exchange(or transport) regulated: selective

permeability
Structure Dictates Membrane Permeability:
Hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules cross membrane
rapidly
e.g., hydrocarbons, oxygen, CO2 can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass
through the membrane rapidly

Polar molecules cross slowly

e.g. sugars, charged proteins, water

HOW DO HYDROPHILIC SUBSTANCES CROSS

MEMBRANES?

Transport proteins
Some create hydrophilic channels across membranes for
polar molecules or ions to pass through
Example: Aquaporin : water channel protein

Carrier proteins

binds solutes & change the shape of carrier

help to facilitate passage across membrane
highly specific for transported solutes
Examples: glucose transporter is a carrier protein for
glucose only

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PASSIVE TRANSPORT: DIFFUSION

Molecules of dye

PASSIVE TRANSPORT: DIFFUSION

Membrane (cross section)

WATER

Net diffusion

Net diffusion

Equilibrium

Diffusion of one solute

Substances diffuse down their concentration gradient from

high to low
Substances reach dynamic equilibrium
No work (no added energy) required

Net diffusion
Net diffusion

Net diffusion
Net diffusion

Equilibrium
Equilibrium

Diffusion of two solutes

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EFFECTS OF OSMOSIS ON WATER BALANCE

Lower
concentration
of solute (sugar)

Higher
concentration
of sugar

Same concentration
of sugar

Osmosis
diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
membrane

Diffuses across a membrane from the region of

lower solute (such as an ion) concentration to
the region of higher solute concentration

H2O

Selectively
permeable membrane: sugar molecules cannot pass
through pores, but
water molecules can

The direction of osmosis is determined only by

a difference in total solute concentration
Osmosis

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WATER BALANCE OF CELLS WITHOUT WALLS

Tonicity
ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

Isotonic solution
solute concentration is equal inside and outside the cell -->
no net water movement cell remains same size

Hypertonic solution
external solute concentration is greater than that inside the
cell-->cell loses water

Hypotonic solution
external solute concentration is less than that inside the cell--> cell
gains water

WATER BALANCE OF CELLS WITH

WALLS VS NO WALLS
Cell walls help maintain water balance

Plant cell in hypotonic solution swells ->turgid (firm)

Plant cell and its surroundings isotonic--> no
net water movement; the cell becomes
flaccid (limp), and the plant may wilt

In hypertonic environment, plant cells lose

water--> membrane pulls away from the wall:
plasmolysis

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PASSIVE TRANSPORT AIDED BY PROTEINS

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

Channel protein

Solute
CYTOPLASM

CHANNEL PROTEIN

Facilitated diffusion
transport proteins speed movement of molecules
across the plasma membrane

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ACTIVE TRANSPORT

PASSIVE TRANSPORT AIDED BY PROTEINS

EXTRACELLULAR [Na+] high

FLUID
[K+] low

Na+
Na+
Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+

CYTOPLASM

[Na+] low
[K+] high

Na+

Na+

Cytoplasmic
bonds to
the sodium-potassium pump

Carrier protein

P
ADP

ATP

Na+

binding stimulates
phosphorylation by ATP.

Phosphorylation causes
the protein to change its
conformation, expelling Na+
to the outside.

Loss of the phosphate

restores the proteins
original conformation.

K+ is released and Na+

sites are receptive again;
the cycle repeats.

Solute

CARRIER PROTEIN
P
P

K+

Extracellular
binds
to the protein, triggering
release of the phosphate
group.

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Passive transport

Active transport

ELECTROGENIC PUMPS

ATP

EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

+
+

H+
H+

Proton pump
H+

H+
H+

CYTOPLASM

H+

ATP
Diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

A transport protein that generates a voltage across a membrane--> opposite

charges across membrane (membrane potential)
Example: In animals, Na-K pump
In plant fungi and bacteria, proton pump
Requires ATP (active transport)

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HOW DO LARGE MOLECULES MOVE IN

AND OUT OF CELLS?

COTRANSPORT

ATP

ER

H+

H+

+
H+

Proton pump

H+

Sucrose-H+
cotransporter

Diffusion
of H+
H+

H+
H+

+
+

Sucrose

Coupled Transport by a Membrane Protein

When active transport of one solute indirectly drives transport
of another
Plants commonly use the proton gradient generated by proton
pumps to drive transport of nutrients into the cell

Small molecules and water

enter or leave the cell through
the lipid bilayer or by
transport proteins
Large molecules, such as
polysaccharides and proteins,
cross the membrane via
vesicles

Transmembrane
glycoproteins
Secretory
protein
Glycolipid
Golgi
apparatus
Vesicle

Plasma membrane:
Cytoplasmic face

Secreted
protein

Extracellular face
Transmembrane
glycoprotein

Plasma membrane:

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HOW DO LARGE MOLECULES MOVE IN

AND OUT OF CELLS?
Exocytosis
Transport vesicles with cargo migrate to the membrane, fuse
with it, and are release contents
Example:
Many secretory cells use exocytosis to export their products
Pancreatic cells (beta-cells) secrete insulin

Endocytosis
Cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles at the
plasma membrane
Reversal of exocytosis, involving different proteins

ENDOCYTOSIS
Three types of endocytosis:
Phagocytosis (cellular eating):
Cell engulfs particle in a vacuole

Pinocytosis (cellular drinking):

Cell creates vesicle around fluid

Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
Binding of ligands to receptors triggers vesicle
formation

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ENDOCYTOSIS
RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
Coat protein

Receptor

Ligand

Coated
vesicle

Coated
pit
A coated pit
and a coated
vesicle formed
during
receptormediated
endocytosis
(TEMs).

Coat
protein

Plasma
membrane

0.25 m

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