Abundance of elements

Abundance of elements in the Earth

The Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired
different compositions during the formation and evolution of the solar system. In turn, the natural
history of the Earth caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements.
The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.981024 kg. It is composed mostly
of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%
),calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of
other elements. Due to mass segregation, the core region is believed to be primarily composed
of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace
elements.

Earth's bulk (total) elemental abundance:

An estimate of the elemental abundances in the total mass of the Earth. Note that numbers are
estimates, and they will vary depending on source and method of estimation. Order of magnitude
of data can roughly be relied upon. ppb (atoms) is parts per billion, meaning that is the number of
atoms of a given element in every billion atoms in the Earth.

Earth's crustal elemental abundance:

This graph illustrates the relative abundance of the chemical elements in Earth's upper
continental crust, which is relatively accessible for measurements and estimation. Many of the
elements shown in the graph are classified into (partially overlapping) categories:
1. rock-forming elements (major elements in green field, and minor elements in light green
field);
2. rare earth elements (lanthanides, La-Lu, and Y; labeled in blue);
3. major industrial metals (global production >~3107 kg/year; labeled in red);
4. precious metals (labeled in purple);
5. the nine rarest "metals" the six platinum group elements plus Au, Re, and Te (a
metalloid) in the yellow field.
Note that there are two breaks where the unstable elements technetium (atomic number: 43)
andpromethium (atomic number: 61) would be. These are both extremely rare, since on Earth

they are only produced through the spontaneous fission of very heavy radioactive elements (for
example, uranium,thorium, or the trace amounts of plutonium that exist in uranium ores), or by
the interaction of certain other elements with cosmic rays. Both of the first two of these elements
have been identified spectroscopically in the atmospheres of stars, where they are produced by
ongoing nucleosynthetic processes. There are also breaks where the six noble gases would be,
since they are not chemically bound in the Earth's crust, and they are only generated by decay
chains from radioactive elements and are therefore extremely rare there. The twelve naturally
occurring very rare, highly radioactive elements
(polonium, astatine, francium, radium,actinium, protactinium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, c
urium, berkelium, and californium) are not included, since any of these elements that were
present at the formation of the Earth have decayed away eons ago, and their quantity today is
negligible and is only produced from the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium.
Oxygen and silicon are notably quite common elements. They have frequently combined with
each other to form common silicate minerals.

(PRESENT IN DIAGRAM)
Abundance (atom fraction) of the chemical elements in Earth's upper continental crust as a
function of atomic number. The rarest elements in the crust (shown in yellow) are the most dense.
They were further rarefied in the crust by being siderophile (iron-loving) elements, in
theGoldschmidt classification of elements. Siderophiles were depleted by being relocated into the
Earth's core. Their abundance in meteoroidmaterials is relatively higher. Additionally, tellurium and
selenium have been depleted from the crust due to formation of volatile hydrides.

Hydrosphere:
Water is the most abundant substance at the earths surface. Almost all of it is in the oceans, which
cover 70% of the surface area of the earth. However, the amounts of water present in the atmosphere
and on land (as surface runoff, lakes and streams) is great enough to make it a significant agent in
transporting substances between the lithosphere and the oceans.
Water interacts with both the atmosphere and the lithosphere, acquiring solutes from each, and thus
provides the major chemical link between these two realms. The various transformations undergone
by water through the different stages of the hydrologic cycle act to transport both dissolved and
particulate substances between different geographic locations.
Reservoir

Volume / 106, km3

Percent of total

Oceans

1370

97.25

Ice caps and

39

2.05

glaciers
Deep groundwater

5.3

0.38

Shallow
groundwater

4.3

0.30

Lakes

0.125

0.01

Soil moisture

0.065

0.005

Atmosphere

0.013

0.001

Rivers

0.0017

0.0001

Biosphere

0.0006

0.00004

Total

1408.7

100

Phosphorus

The major elements undergoing steady-state dynamic change in the ocean are connected with biological
processes. The key limiting element in the development of oceanic biomass is phosphorus, in the form of the
phosphate ion. For terrestrial plant life, nitrogen is more commonly the limiting element, where it is taken up in
the form of the nitrate ion. In the ocean, however, the ratio of the nitrate ion concentration to that of phosphorus
has been found to be everywhere the same; this implies that the concentration of one controls that of the other.
Phosphorus is unique in that its major source of input to the oceans derives ultimately from pollution; in the long
term, this represents a transfer of land-based phosphate deposits to the oceans. About half of the phosphorus
input is in the form of suspended material, both organic and inorganic, the latter being in a variety of forms
including phosphates adsorbed onto clays and iron oxide paticles, and calcium phosphate (apatatite) eroded
from rocks.

Carbon
Carbon enters the ocean from both the atmosphere (as CO2) and river water, in which the principal species is
HCO3. Once in solution, the carbonate species are in equilibrium with each other and with H 3O+, and the
concentrations of all of these are influenced by the partial pressure of atmospheric CO 2. The mass budget for
calcium is linked to that of carbon through solubility equilibria with the various solid forms of CaCO 3 (mainly
calcite). During photosynthesis, C12 is taken up slightly more readily than the rare isotope C 13. Since the rate of

photosynthesis is controlled by the phosphate concentration, the C 13/C12 ratio in the dissolved carbon dioxide of
surface waters is slightly higher than in the ocean as a whole. Observations of carbon isotope ratios in buried
sediments have been useful in tracking historical changes in phosphate concentrations.

The C:P ratio and the regulation of atmospheric CO 2

The ratio of carbon to phosphorus in sea salt is about eight times greater than the same ratio measured in
organic debris. This implies that in exhausting the available phosphate, the living organisms in the upper ocean
consume only 12.5% of the dissolved carbon. Even this relatively small withdrawal of carbon from the carbonate
system is sufficient to noticeably reduce the partial pressure of gaseous CO 2 in equilibrium with the ocean; it has
been estimated that if all life in the ocean should suddenly cease, the atmospheric CO 2 content would rise to
about three times its present level. The regulation of atmospheric CO 2 pressure by the oceans also works the
other way: since the amount of dissolved carbonate in the oceans is so much greater than the amount of CO 2 in
the atmosphere, the oceans act to buffer the effects of additions of CO2 to the atmosphere. Calculations indicate
that about half of the CO2 that has been produced by burning fossil fuel since the Industrial Revolution has ended
up in the oceans.

Bicarbonate
This is of course the major carbonate species in the ocean. Although it is interconvertible with CO 2 and is thus
coupled to the carbon and photosynthetic cycles, itself can neither be taken up nor produced by organisms, and
so it can be treated somewhat independently of biological activity. In this sense the only major input of into the
oceans is river water. The two removal mechanisms are formation of CO2
H+ + HCO3

H2O + CO

and the (biologically mediated) formation of CaCO3:

Ca2+ + HCO3

CaCO3 + H+

Since the pH of the oceans does not change, H + is conserved and the removal of HCO 3 by biogenic secretion of
CaCO3 can be expressed by the sum of these reactions:
Ca2+ + 2 HCO3

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

whose reverse direction represents the dissolution of the skeletal remains of dead organisms as they fall to lower
depths.

Calcite
The upper parts of the ocean tend to be supersaturated in CaCO 3. Solid CaCO3, in the form of calcite, is
manufactured by a large variety of organisms such as foraminifera. A constant rain of calcite falls through the
ocean as these organisms die. The solubility of increases with pressure, so only that portion of the calcite that
falls to shallow regions of the ocean floor is incorporated into sediments and removed from circulation; the
remainder dissolves after reaching a depth known as the lysolcline. At the present time, the amounts of

carbonate and Ca2+ supplied by erosion and volcanism appear to be only about one-third as great as the amount
of calcite produced by organisms. As the carbonate concentration in a given region of the ocean becomes
depleted due to higher calcite production, the lysocline moves up, tending to replenish the carbonate, and
reducing the amount that is withdrawn by burial in sediments. Organic residues that fall into the deep sea are
mostly oxidized to CO2, presumably by bacterial activity.

Other Elements
Calcium
Calcium is removed from seawater solely by biodeposition as CaCO 3, a process whose rate can be determined
quite accurately both at the present and in the past.
inputs

outputs

rivers

550

CaCO3 into
water

shallow 520

volcanic basalt

191

CaCO3 into deep water

cation exchange

37

total

778

440

960

Present-day budget for oceanic calcium (Tg Ca/yr).

As is explained above, the upper part of the ocean is supersaturated in calcite but the lower ocean is not. For this
reason, less than 20% of the CaCO3 that is formed ends up as sediment and is eventually buried.
The data in the above Table indicate that at the present time there is a net removal of calcium from the oceans.
This is due to the rise in sea level since the decline of the more recent glacial epoch during the past 11,000
years. The additional water has covered the continental shelves, increasing the amount of shallow ocean where
the growth of organisms is most intense. Over the more distant past (25 million years) the calcium budget
appears to be well balanced.

Chloride
Evidence from geology and peleontology indicates that the salinity, and hence the chloride concentration of
sewater has been quite constant for about 600 million years. There have been periods when climatic conditions
and coastal topography have led to episodes of evaporite formation, but these have evidently been largely
compensated by the eventual return of the evaporite deposits to the sea. The natural input of chloride from rivers
is about 215 Tg/yr, but the present input is about half again as great (Table 7 on page 33), due to pollution. Also,
there are presently no significant areas where seawater is evaporating to dryness. Thus the oceanic chloride
budget is considerably out of balance. However, the replacement time of Cl in the oceans is so long (87 million
years) that this will probably have no long-term effect.

Sodium
Although sodium is tied to chloride, it is also involved in the formation of silicate minerals, the weathering of
rocks, and in cation exchange with clay sediments. Its short-term budget is quite out of balance for the same
reasons as is that of chloride. On a longer time scale, removal of sodium by reaction with hot basalt associated
with undersea volcanic activity may be of importance.

Sulfate
Considerably more sulfate is being added to seawater than is being removed by the major mechanisms of
sediment formation (mainly CaSO4 and pyrites). The natural river input is 82 Tg of S per year, while that due to
pollution is 61 Tg/yr from rivers and 17 Tg/yr from rain and dry deposition.

Magnesium
This element is unusual in that its river-water input is balanced mostly by reaction with volcanic basalt; removal
through biogenic formation of magnesian calcite (dolomite) accounts for only 11% of its total removal from the
ocean. The present-day magnesium budget seems to have been balanced for the past 100 million years.
However, most of the extensive dolomite deposits were formed prior to this time, so the longer-term magnesium
budget is poorly understood.

Potassium
The potassium budget of the ocean is not well understood. The element is unusual in that only about 60% of its
input is by rivers; the remainder is believed to come from newly formed undersea basalt. The big question about
potassium is how it is removed; fixation by ion-exchange with illite clays seems to be a major mechanism, and its
uptake by basalt (at lower temperatures than are required for its release) is also believed to occur.

Silica
About 85% of the silicon input to the oceans comes from river water in the form of silicic acid, H 4SiO4. The
remainder probably comes from basalt. The ocean is everywhere undersaturated in silica, especially near the
surface where these organisms deplete it with greater efficiency than any other element.
Because opaline silica dissolves so rapidly, only a small fraction makes it to the bottom. The major deposits occur
in shallower waters where coastal upwelling provides a good supply of N and P nutrients for siliceous organisms.
Thus over half of the biogenic silica deposits are found in the Antarctic ocean.

Nitrogen
This element is complicated by its biologically-mediated exchange with atmospheric nitrogen, and by its
existence in several oxidation states, all of which are interconvertible. Unlike the other major elements, nitrogen
does not form extensive sedimentary deposits; most of the nitrogen present in dead organic material seems to be
removed before it can be buried. Through this mechanism there is extensive cycling of nitrogen between the
shallow and deep parts of the oceans.

Atmospheric elemental abundance:

The order of elements by volume-fraction (which is approximately molecular mole-fraction) in
the atmosphere is nitrogen (78.1%), oxygen (20.9%),[12] argon (0.96%), followed by (in uncertain
order) carbon and hydrogen because water vapor and carbon dioxide, which represent most of
these two elements in the air, are variable components. Sulfur, phosphorus, and all other
elements are present in significantly lower proportion.

nitrogen and oxygen are the main components of the atmosphere by volume.
Nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere and deposited at the Earth's surface
mainly by specialized nitrogen fixing bacteria, and by way
of lightning through precipitation. The addition of this nitrogen to the Earth's
surface soils and various water bodies supplies much needed nutrition for plant
growth. Nitrogen returns to the atmosphere primarily through biomass
combustion and denitrification.
Oxygen is exchanged between the atmosphere and life through the processes
of photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthesis produces oxygen when
carbon dioxide and water are chemically converted into glucose with the help of
sunlight. Respiration is a the opposite process of photosynthesis. In respiration,
oxygen is combined with glucose to chemically release energy for metabolism.
The products of this reaction are water and carbon dioxide.
The next most abundant gas on the table is water vapor. Water vapor varies in
concentration in the atmosphere both spatially and temporally. The highest
concentrations of water vapor are found near the equator over the oceans and
tropical rain forests. Cold polar areas and subtropical continental deserts are
locations where the volume of water vapor can approach zero percent. Water vapor
has several very important functional roles on our planet:
It redistributes heat energy on the Earth through latent
heat energy exchange.
The condensation of water vapor creates precipitaion that
falls to the Earth's surface providing needed fresh water for
plants and animals.
It helps warm the Earth's atmosphere through
the greenhouse effect.

The fifth most abundant gas in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. Carbon
dioxide is an important greenhouse gas. The human-caused increase in its

concentration in the atmosphere has strengthened thegreenhouse effect and has

definitely contributed to global warming over the last 100 years. Carbon
dioxide is also naturally exchanged between the atmosphere and life through the
processes of photosynthesis and respiration.

Methane is a very strong greenhouse gas. Since 1750, methane concentrations

in the atmosphere have increased by more than 150%. The primary sources for
the additional methane added to the atmosphere (in order of importance) are:
rice cultivation; domestic grazing animals; termites; landfills; coal mining; and,
oil and gas extraction. Anaerobic conditions associated with rice paddy flooding
results in the formation of methane gas.
The average concentration of the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide is now
increasing at a rate of 0.2 to 0.3% per year. Its part in the enhancement of the
greenhouse effect is minor relative to the other greenhouse gases already
mentioned. However, it does have an important role in the artificial fertilization
of ecosystems. In extreme cases, this fertilization can lead to the death of
forests, eutrophication of aquatic habitats, and species exclusion. Sources for
the increase of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere include: land-use conversion;
fossil fuel combustion; biomass burning; and soil fertilization.

Ozone's role in the enhancement of the greenhouse effect has been difficult to
determine. Accurate measurements of past long-term (more than 25 years in the
past) levels of this gas in the atmosphere are currently unavailable. Moreover,
concentrations of ozone gas are found in two different regions of the Earth's
atmosphere. The majority of the ozone (about 97%) found in the atmosphere is
concentrated in the stratosphereat an altitude of 15 to 55 kilometers above the
Earth's surface. This stratospheric ozone provides an important service to life on
the Earth as it absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation. In recent years, levels
of stratospheric ozone have been decreasing due to the buildup of human
createdchlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere.

Ozone is also highly concentrated at the Earth's surface in and around cities. Most
of this ozone is created as a by product of human createdphotochemical smog.
This buildup of ozone is toxic to organisms living at the Earth's surface.

Table 1: Average composition of the atmosphere up to an altitude of 25 km.

Chemical
Formula

Percent Volume

Nitrogen

N2

78.08%

Oxygen

O2

20.95%

*Water

H2O

0 to 4%

Argon

Ar

0.93%

CO2

0.0360%

Neon

Ne

0.0018%

Helium

He

0.0005%

*Methane

CH4

0.00017%

Hydrogen

H2

0.00005%

N2 O

0.00003%

O3

0.000004%

Gas Name

*Carbon Dioxide

*Nitrous Oxide
*Ozone

* variable gases

Biosphere:
The biosphere is a concept used in ecology and biology to describe the
oceans, the lands of the Earth and the air. In other words, the biosphere
contains all living things and the resources necessary to maintain that life.
There are 12 elements from the periodic table that interact within the
biosphere to produce, maintain and protect life on the Earth.
Ocean

The largest of all the Earth's biomes is the ocean. Oceans can be

divided into shores; the pelagic zone, or the first level of sea floor; the
benthic zone, or the deep sea floor; and the abyss, or the unreachable
bottom of the sea. The life process in the ocean and marine biomes
contains a shelf or floor on which organisms can attach themselves. The
elements processed through the life cycles in the ocean biome are
magnesium, sodium, chlorine and sulphur.
Land

The Earth's crust contains many elements. The most commonly

found are oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, potassium and

magnesium. Of these, oxygen is most prevalent at 51 percent. The next
most abundant is silicon at 27 percent. The element with the next largest
percentage is aluminum at 8 percent. The living creatures in the various
terrestrial biomes on the planet use these elements in their life process.
They also leave these elements behind in their remains.
Air

The atmosphere contains the gases that surround the terrestrial and
maritime biomes within the biosphere. In the atmosphere the main
elements are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon. Oxygen is the most
prominent element and allows for the organic life, such as humanity, to
exist on the Earth. The atmosphere allows for plant life to take in carbon
and regenerate oxygen. The processing of the elements in all biospheres
creates a biochemical cycle and has for millions of years.
How They Interact

The basic cellular elements in the biosphere interact by providing

the resources necessary to sustain life as we know it on the Earth. When
the remains of organ life are returned to the biosphere, they are reduced
to their elemental basis and used again. Global biochemical cycles and
patterns of biodiversity serve the highest levels of biological organization.
The biosphere processes the elements so that processes such as
photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation can occur. To understand the concept
of climate change or global warming, you need a basic understanding of
the changes in the physics and chemistry of the Earth's systems.