INSTRUMENT ENGINEERS’ Process Measurement and Analysis Béla G. Lipték EDITOR-IN-CHIEF HANDBOOK THIRD EDITION MiiCONTENTS Contributors xiii Introduction —_ xix List of Abbreviations xxiii Instrument Symbols, Performance and Terminology 1 1.1 Instrument Terminology and Performance 2 1.2 System Accuracy 35 1.3. Redundant and Voting Systems 42 1.4 Flowsheet Symbols 47 1.5 Binary Logic Diagrams 56 1.5 Instrument Evaluation 63 Flow Measurement 69 2.1 Application and Selection 76 22 BTU Flowmeters for Heat Exchangers 88 23. BTU Flowmeters for Gaseous Fuels 90 24 Cross-Cortelation Flowmetering 93 25 Elbow Taps 95 2.6 Flow Switches 97 . 2.7 Jet Deftection Flow Detectors 101 2.8 Laminar Flowmeters 104 29 Magnetic Flowmeters 110 2.10 Mass Flowmeters—Coriolis 121 2.11 Mass Flowmeters—Miscellaneous 135 2.12 Mass Flowmeters—Thermal 139 2.13 Metering Pumps 144 214 Onifices 150 2.15 Pitot Tubes, Averaging and Duct Section Units 168 2.16 Positive Displacement Gas Flowmeters 178 2.17 Positive Displacement Liquid Meters and Provers 182 2.18 Purge Flow Regulators 189 2.19 Segmental Wedge Flowmeter 192 2.20 Sight Flow Indicators 195 221 Solids Flowmeters and Feeders 198 222° Target Meters 213 223 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 215 2.24 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 226 2.25 Variable-Atea, Gap and Vane Flowmeters 233Contents _CKnrc 226 V-Cone Flowmeter 241 227 Venturi Tubes, Flow Tubes, and Flow Nozzles 243 228 Vortex and Fluidic Flowmeters 252 229 Weirs and Flumes 263 Level Measurement 269 3.1 Application and Selection 274 32 Bubblers 281 33 Capacitance and Radio Frequency (RF) Admittance Probes 284 3.4 Conductivity and Field Etfect Level Switches 296 35 Diaphragm Level Detectors 299 316 Differential Pressure Level Detectors 303 3.7 Displacer Level Detectors 316 38 Float Level Devices 324 39 Laser Level Sensors 332 3.10 Level Gauges 336 3.11 Microwave Level Switches 344 3.12 Optical Level Devices 347 3.13. Radar Level Transmitters and Gauges 351 3.14 Radiation Level Sensors 357 3,15 Resistance Tapes 368 3.16 Rotating Paddle Switches 372 3.17 Slip Tubes and Dipsticks 375 3.18 Tape Level Devices 376 3.19 Thermal Level Sensors 384 3.20 Time Domain Reflectometry and Phase Difference Sensors 388 321 Ultrasonic Level Detectors 390 3.22 Vibrating Level Switches 395 Temperature Measurement 399 ‘Application and Selection 406 42 Bineule Themomsters 419 43° Calibrators and Simulators 421 44 Color Indicators. Crayons, Pellets 425 4.5 Fiber-Optic Thermometers 427 4.6 Filled-Bulb and Glass-Stem Thermometers 433 47 megrated Circuitry (IC) Transistors and Diodes 42 43 Miscellaneous Temperature Sensors 445 49° Pneumatic and Suction Pyrometers 448 410 Pyrometrie Cones $50 4.11 Radiation and Infrared Pyrometers 453 12 Quartz Crystal Thermometry 466 413. Resistance Temperature Deiectors (RTDs) 468 4.14 Temperature Switches and Thermostats 477 415° Thermistors 482 416 Thermocouples 487 4.17 Themowells 510 418 Uttasonie Thermometers 519 Pressure Measurement 523 3.1 Selection and Application $28 5.2 Accessories: Seals, Snubbers, Calibrators and Manifolds 531 5.3. Bellows-Type Pressure Sensors 537 5.4 Bourdon and Helical Pressure Sensors S415.3 Diaphragm or Capsule-Type Sensors S45 5.6 Differential Pressure Insiruments 551 5.7 Electronic Pressure Sensors 559 58 High-Pressure Sensors 568 59 Manometers $71 5.10 Multiple Pressure Scanners $76 5.11 Pressure Gauges 580 5.12 Pressure Repeaters 584 5.13. Pressure and Differential Pressure Switches 587 5.14 Vacuum Sensors 592. Density Measurement 603 6.1 Application and Selection 607 62 Liquid Density—Displacerment and Float-Type Densitometers 612 63 Liquid Density—Hydrometers 617 64 Liquid Density—Hydrestatic Densitometers 619 65 Liquid/Siurry Density—Miscellaneous Densitometers 623 6.6 Liquid Density—Oscillating Coriolis Densitometers 626 6.7 Liguid’Sludge Density—Radiation Densitometers 630 $8 LiguShinyias Densiy— Vibrating Denstometers 64 69 6.10 Safety, Weight, and Miscellaneous Sensors 651 Anemometers 655 ” Boroscopes 659 73 Electrical and Intrinsic Safety 662 74 Electrical Meters and Sensors 672 18 gy Management Devices (Peak Load Shedding) 681 7.6 Excess Flow Check Valves 685 7.7 Explosion Suppression and Deluge Systems 688 7.8 Flame Arresters, Conservation Vents and Emergency Vents 695 7.9 Detectors of Flame, Fire, and Smoke 702 7.10 Leak Detectors 708 TAL Metal Deteetors 714 7.12 Noise Sensors. 716 7.13 Proximity Sensors and Limit Switches 722 7.14 Relief Valves—Determination of Required Capacity 730 7.15 Reliet Valves—Features and Sizing 738 7.16 Rupture Dises 761 7.17 Speed Detectors, Tachometers 770 7.18 Thickness and Dimension Measurement 775 7.19 ‘Torque and Force Transducers 780 7.20 Vibration, Shock, snd Acceleration 786 7.2) Weinher Stations 792 7.22 Weighiag—General Considerations 796 7.23. Weighing—Mechanical, Hydraulic, Pneumatic 813 7.24 Weighing—Electronic Load Cells 819 Analytical Instrumentation 833 R.1 Analyzer Application and Selection 844 2 Analyzer Sampling—Process Samples 860 8.3 Analyzer Sampling—Stack Particulates 877 84 Air Quality Monitoring 884 Contents HAM2 IITA ATT aS 86 a7 88 39 8.10 8 812 813 gid BIS 8.16 817 818 819 820 821 822 323 324 825 826 827 8.28 829 830 831 832 833 84 8.35 8.36 837 838 8.39 8.40 841 BaD 843 Bad 845 8.46 847 8.48 849 8.50 851 852 333 854 855 856 837 838 859 Biometers 899 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Total Oxygen Demand (TOD) 901 Calorimeters 911 Carbon Dioxide 918 Carbon Monoxide 920 Chlorine 924 Chromatographs—Gas 929 Chromatographs—Liguid 951, Coal Analyzers 955 Colorimeters. 959 Combustibles 963 Conductivity Analyzers 970 Consistency Analyzers 976 Corrosion Monitoring 980 Differential Vapor Pressure Sensor 985, Dioxin Analysis 987 Elemental Monitors 990 Fiber-Optic Probes 994 Fluoride Analyzers 1001 Hydrocarbon Analyzers 1005 Hydrogen Sulfide 1010 Infrared Analyzers 1013 Ton-Selective Electrodes 1028 Mass Spectrometers 1039 Mercury in Air 1086 Mercury in Water 1051 Moisture in Air: Humidity and Dew Point 1057 Moisture in Gases and Liquids 1069 Moisture in Solids 1079 Molecular Weight 1085 Nitrate, Ammonia, and Total Nitrogen 1094 Nitrogen Oxide Analyzers 1097 Odor Detection 1102 Oil In or On Water 1105 Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP) 1110 Oxygen in Gases 1116 Oxygen in Liquids (Dissolved Oxgyen) 1124 Ozone in Gas 1130 Ozone in Water 1133 Particulates, Opacity, Dust, and Smoke 1136 Particle Size and Distribution Monitors 1149 pH Measurement 1154 Phosphorus Analyzer 1172 Physical Properties Analyzers—ASTM Methods 1175 Refractometers L191 ‘Streaming Current or Particle Charge Analyzer 1197 Sulfur-in-Oil Analyzers 1200 Sulfur Oxide Analyzers 1204 “Thermal Conductivity Detectors 1209 Total Carbon Analyzers 1213 Toxic Gas Monitoring — 1218 ‘Turbidity. Sludge, and Suspended Solids 1230 Ultraviolet and Visible Analyzers 1236 Viscometers—Application and Selection 1247 Viscometers—Laboratory 12538.60 861 8.02 263 Viscometers—Industrial 1268 Voltametric, Amperometric, and Other Electrochemical Analyzers 1286 Water Quality Monitoring 1293 Wet-Chemistry and Autotitrator Analyzers 1302 Appendix 1309 Al A2 a3 AS AS AG AT International System of Units 1310 Engineering Conversion Factors 1318 Chemical Resistance of Materials 1339 Composition of Metallic and Other Materials 1348 Steam and Water Tables 1351 Friction Loss in Pipes 1358 ‘Tank Volumes 1362 Index 1365 Contents % Ieae roan e ESSEC eeci eC Cee eae eee Cee Her CEE EEE CONTRIBUTORS ‘The coauthors of all editions and the reviewers of the last edition are listed with the particular section(s) to which they contributed. The positions listed below in conjunction with the contributors’ names were held by the contributors atthe time their contributions were prepared. ROSS C, ANLSTROM, JR, RAYMOND ANRINO CATHY APPLE JAMES B. ARANT ARTHUR ALSTON ALLAN T. BACOM, JR, WENDALL M. BARROWS SAN BARTH. ALC. BLAKE CHRISTOPHER P. BLAKELEY L JOSEPH BOLLYKY V. BOYD, JR. ‘AUGUST BRODGESELL JANES E, BROWN ‘THOMAS M. CARDIS ‘THOMAS J, CLAGGETT ‘WILSON A. CLAYTON GERALD L. COMBS BSCh&Math, Executive Vice President, Mentech Ine. PhD, Consulting Scientist for Chromatography, The Foxboro Co. BSCE, Project Engineer, Micro Motion Inc, BSCE, Senior Consultant, EJ. du Pont de Nemours Co. BS, PE, Senior Research Engineer, Chevron Reseatch Co. BACh, Staff Engineer, Environmental Technologies Group Senior Applications Coordinator, Union Carbide Corp. EE, MS, Manager, Industrial Instrument Users Association, The Netherlands BE, Manager for Industrial Instrument Div., Cambridge Instrument Co. BSChE, Marketing Manager for Water Treatment, Honeywell Inc. PhD, PE, President, Bollyky Associates BSEE, MSEE, PE, Engineering Supervisor, Saudi Aramco BSEE, President, CRB Systems Inc. BSME, PE, Manager of Engineering, Union Carbide Corp. MSCh, Laboratory Manager, ABB Process Analytics BSE, Application Specialist, Honeywell, Inc. BSCHE, MSME, Chief Engineer, Hy-Cal Engineering. PhDCh, Research Chemist, Applied Automation/Hartmann & Braunxv Contributors VINCENT 8. CORTINA GILES M, CRABTREE HLL DANEMAN JOHN L. DANIEWICZ Lous D. DIMAPOLE ‘ALBERT D, ENRENFRIED JOSEF FEHRENBACH KENNETH S, FLETCHER ‘ALBERT P. FOUNDOS: (WALTER F, GEROES. RICHARD GHLSERT ANTHONY C. GILEY PAUL Ml. GLATTSTEIN JOHN D. GOODRICH, JR. ROBERT J. GORDON ‘OAM M. GRAY ‘BHISHAM P. GUPTA JOHN T, HALL, (CHARLES E. MAMILTON ‘JOHN M, HARMAN iit ‘ROBERT A. HERRICK ‘MEROLD |, WERTANU CONRAD H. HOEPPNER MICHAEL F. HORDESKI JOEL 0, HOUGEN WALTER D. HOULE (WILFRED H. HOWE BSCHE, MSIM, Business Manager, EG&G Co. BSE, PE, Principal Engineer, GIMACA Engincecing BCHE, PE, Principal, LabPlan BSEE, MA, Product Manager, TN Technologies Inc. BSEE, MSEE, Director, Flowmeter Marketing and Technology, BIF Products of Leeds & Northrup Co. MS in Instrumes President, Metrtape Ine. Dipl. Ing.. VEGA Grieshaber GmbH & Co. Germany PhD, Technical Group Leader, Analytical Measurements, The Foxboro Co. BSCHE, MBA, President, Fluid Data Inc SEE, PE, Technical Specialist, The Dow Chemical Co PhD, Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of South Fovida PAD, Rescarch Coordinator, The Foxboro Co. BSE, Senior Electrcat Engineer, Crawford & Russell Inc. BSME, Engineering Supervisor, Bechtel Corp PhD, Environmental Division Manager, Global Geochemistry Comp. BSCHE. Senior Application Specialist, Leeds & Northrup, a Unit of General Signal BSME, MSME, PHD, PE, Specialist Supervisor, Saudi Aramco BS, Senior Technical Editor, Instrument & Control Systems BSCHE, Senior Environmental Specialist, The Dow Chemical Co BSCh, MSCh, PE, Senior Project Engineer, Beckman Instruments BSCHE, PE, Consulting Engineer MSE, PE, Senior Vice President, Advanced Engineering Concepts lnc BSEE, MSEE, Consultant, Simmons Precision Products Ine. BSEE, MSEE, PE, Conirol System Consultant, Siltran Digital PhDCHE, PE, Consultant, Professor Emeritus, Univer ty of Texas BSEE, President, Automation Management International BSEE, MBA, PE, Chief Engineer, The Foxboro Co,DAVID L. HOYLE JAY S. JACOBSON RAUSHREE R. JAIN [ROBERT F. JAKUBIK ROBERT H. JONES RICHARD K. KANINSKI DAVID S. KAYSER ‘THOMAS J. KEHOE TAMAS KEMENY CHANG H. KIM JOHN G. KOCAK, JR. JOHN G, KOPP JOSEF KOZAK GEORGE R. LEAVITT ‘TRUMAN S. LIGHT BELA G. LIPTAK DAM H, F. UU ‘ANDREW J. LIVINGSTON HARRY E. LOCKERY DAVID J. LOMAS ORVAL P. LOVETT, JR. siti LUKAS. DAVID C. MAIR. FRED D. MARTIN THOMAS A. MAYER GERALD F. McGOWAN GREGORY K. McMILLAN Contributors xv BSCHE, System Design Engineer, The Foxboro Co. PAD, Plant Physiologist, Boyce Thomson Institute for Plant Research BSCHE, Applications Engineer, Caital Controls Co BSCHE, Manager, Process Control Applications, Digital Applications Ine BS, Principal Applications Engineer, Beckman Instruments toc BA, Senior Instrument Designer, Dravo Engineers and Constructors BSEE, Senior Instrument Engineer, Texas City Refining Ine. BSCHE, PE, Manager, Technical Services, Beckman Instruments Ine ME, EE, PhD, Secretary General of IMEKO International Measurement Confederation, Hungary BSChE, Manager, Technical Services, ARCO Chemical Co. BA, Consultant BSME, PE, rior Product Marketing Manager, Fischer & Porter Co. PHD, Aeronautical Research and Test Institute, Czech Republic BSME, PE, Consultant BSCh, MSCh, PADCh, Consultant ME, MME, PE, President, Liptsk Associates P.C BSc, MS, PhD, Principal Scientist, J.T. Baker Ine BS, MBA, Regional Sales Manager. Ohmart BSEE, MSEE, PE, President, Hotinger-Baldwin Measurements Ine. Marketing Support Executive, Kent Process Control Lid ASCE, Consulting Engineer, Instruments and Control Systems, 1.E. du Pont de Nemours Co. MSC. Scientific Worker, Aeronautical Research and Test Institute of Czech Republic BCE, PE, Manager, Sales Services, Wallace & Tieman Div. of Penawalt Comp. BS, Analyzer Consultan, Fluid Data, Amscor BSE. MSE, PE, Senior DevelopmentResearch Engineer. PPG Industries BSEE, MSEE, Vice President of Engineering Lear Siegler Ine BSEPhys, MSE, Fellow, Monsanto Chemical Co.xvi Contributors HUGH A. MILLS CHARLES F, MOORE THOMAS J. MYRON, JR. JAMES A. NAY ‘s. misH ROBERT NUSSBAUM. RICHARD T. OLIVER ‘WILLIAM #, PARTH KENNETH A. PERROTTA KURT 0, PLACHE (GEORGE PLATT DAMIEL E. PODKULSKI (MICHAL PTAGHIK DIETER RALL 1M. RAZA, AMES B. RISHEL MOWARD C. ROBERTS Lewis 8. ROOF GREGORY J. RORECH ‘STEPHAN RUDBACH ERIC J. SCHAFFER DOMALD J, SIBBETT ROBERT SIEV RALPH 6. SMITH JOAM B, STODDARD EUGENE L. SZOMNTAGH EDWARD TELLER ME, President, Macran Products BSCHE, MSChE, PADChE, Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Tennessee BSCHE, Senior Sysiems Design Engineer, The Foxboro Co BSME, PE, Principal Engineer, Westinghouse Electric Corp., Nuclear Fuel Div. De, Research Scientist, National Chemical Laboratory for Industry, Japan Bs BE, Senior Instrument Engineer, Crawford & Russell Inc. BSCHE, MSChE, PhDCHE, Senior Design Engineer, The Foxboro Co. BS, MS, Senior Instrument Specialist, The Dow Chemical Co. BSCh, Vice President of Technology, Balston Inc. BSCE, PE, Vice-President Marketing, Micro-Motion Ine. BSCHE, PE, Staff Engineer, Bechtel Power Corp. BSCHE, Senior Instrument Engineer, Chevron Research & Technology PhD, Aeronautical Research and Test Insitute, Czech Republic BSME., MSME, PE, General Manager, Trans-Met Engineering, Inc PhD, Senior Scientist, Teledyne Analytical Instrument Co. BSME, President, Corporate Equipment BAEE, PE, Consultant BS, MS, Senior Measurement Engineer, Applied Automation Inc. BSChE, PE, Principal Engineer, Geraghty & Miller Inc. MSc, President, Matematica AB, Sweden BSEE, MSE, Project Engineer, MST Systems Corp. PhD, Vice President, Geomet Inc. BSChE, MBA, CE, Engineering Specialist, Bechtel Corp. BS, MS, PhD, Professor, University of Michigan PhD, President, Stoddard Productivity Systems Inc BSChE, MSChE, Consultant MSChE, PhD, PE, Consultant Professor-at-Large, University of CaliforniaNORMAN S. WANER JOHN V. WELCH (ALAN L. WERTHEIMER GEORGE P. WHITTLE ‘THEODORE J. WILUAMS ROBERT W, WORRALL IRVING 6. YOUNG Contributors xvit PhD, Professor of Chemistry, City, University of New York BSCHE, PE, Staff Engineer, Union Carbide Corp. ME, M&CE, Head of Evaluation Department, Netherlands Organization for Applied Research [BSME, MSME, ME, PE, Manager of Training and Development, Bechtel Corp. BSME, MBA, Market Specials, MKS Instruments In. PhD, Principal Scientist, Leeds & Nonhrop Co. BSChE, MSCHE, PRDCHE, PE, Associate Professor, University of Alabama BS, MSChE, MSEE, PhD, PE, Professor of Engineering, Director of Purdue Laboratory for Applied Industrial Control BA, PE, Principal Instrument Engineer, Catalytic Inc. BS, MS, PhD, Chemist, Advanced Technology Staff, Honeywell Inc.—_——————— ‘During nearly three decades ofits existence, the Instrument Engineers’ Handbook Nas become the most widely used reference source in its field. During this same period the profession itself has also changed, and today itis known as process control and instrument engineering. The structure of the reference set remaind unaltered. It is separated into two volumes, one dealing with measurement and the other with control. In this first volume, each major field of measure- ment is discussed in @ separate chapter, and within each chapter the different methods of making that measurement ‘are discussed in separate sections. Each section begins with «feature summary, giving quick access to specific informa- tion on cost, suppliers, ranges, accuracies, and the like. ‘This third edition updates the information in the previ- ‘ously published sections, adds new sections to incorporate the new developments of the past decade, and broadens the horizons of the work from an American to an international perspective. In this volume, Process Measurement and ‘Analysis, the emphasis is on measurement hardware, includ- ing flow, level, temperature, pressure, density, viscosity, weighing, analysis, and safety devices. The Process Control ‘volume of this reference set covers control hardware, includ- ing transmitters, controllers, control valves, displays, DCS, PLC, and computer systems. in addition it provides in-depth ‘coverage of control theory and shows how the unit processes. ‘of distillation, chemical reactors, and many others are con- trolled, The two volumes cover all the topics used by process, control or instrument engineers in their everyday work. uick Access to Specific information This reference set has been orgunized to provide quick aceess to specific information. An extensive index is pro- vided in the back, which allows the user to quickly find any particular topic, Another goal of this reference set is to assist the reader in selecting the right sensors for particular app! cations. For this reason, each chapter begins with an applica- tion- and selection-oriented overview and an orientation table, The orientation table lists all the sensors that are siscusted inthe chapter and summarizes their features and capabilities. IF the reader is using this handbook to select 8 INTRODUCTION sensor for a particular application, the orientation table allows the choices ofa selection to be narrowed down to & few designs. After that, the reader might tum to the core- sponding sections and, based on the information in the fea- ture summaries atthe beginning of each section, decide if the cost, accuracy, and other features are in general Gore- spondence with the requirements ofthe application. If they fre, the reader might proceed to read the selected section. Experienced process control engineers are likely to use this reference set either to obtain quick access to specific information or to help them in making selections. The ess experienced engineers or the students of instrument engi- neering are likely touse this reference work asa textbook. A Student could leam a great deal about the tools of the profession by reading all the material inthe two volumes. In ‘order to fulfill the expectations of both the experienced engineer and the beginning engineer, the handbook has been ‘structured in avery flexible manner. It contains all the basic, information which a student needs, yet it also includes the most recent and most sophisticated advances and provides quick and easy access to both types of information. ‘Needs and Expectations : [As Ledited this reference set for the third time, I could not help but note both the new solutions and the new needs of the process control industry. The new developments and the rnew solutions are discussed in the 500 sections of this handbook; the new needs are less obvious. They are the consequences of new hardware and software capabilities ‘and new technologies, and they become obvious only if one is immersed in the topic to the depth and for the duration 1 have been. It might speed technological progress if some of these needs are briefly listed here. Tt took some time and effort to agree on the 3 10 15 PSIG (02to 1.0’bar) pressure range for the standard pneumatic or the 4 t0 20 mA DC current range for the standard electronic transmission and control signals. Yet, when these signal ranges were finally agreed on, everybody benefited from the agreement. Similarly, the time has come for adopting 2 ‘worldwide standard fora digital communication protocol. It xixxx Introduction istimeto save all the time and effort that is being spent today ‘on linking “black boxes® that were not designed to “speak the same language” and use those valuable engineering energies on increasing the productivity and safety of the processing industries. ‘Meaningful Performance Standards 1s also time to rein in the commer nent manufacturers and to impare seme ound where free speech ends snd where mistepresentation beg in sales literature and in other commercial publications, Its Iso time for professional societies and For testing faborato- ries to nvake their (est results more widely available, A case in point is the way the terms “inaccuracy” (frequently misstated as “‘accuracy") and “rangeability” are used, ‘These terms are rarely defined properly, and the proper definitions that do exist are not adhered to by many It is desirable to have the manufacturers always state not only the inaccuracy of an insirument but also the rangeabil- ity over which that inaccuracy statement is correct. Sim larly, it would be desirable to define “rangeability"” as that maximum ratio between full scale and minimum reading for which the inaccuracy statement i still correct. It would also bbe desirable to base the inaccuracy statements on the per- formance of at least 95% of the sensors tested and include in the inaccuracy statement not only linearity, hysteresis, and repeatability, but also drift, ambient, overrange, supply volt- age, humidity, RFI, and vibration effects ‘Similarly, the performance capabilities of final contro! elements should also be more reliably stated. This is particu: larly true for valve cha ins, and valve rrangeabiliigs. A valve should be called linear when its gain valve manufacturers should give both the minimum and maximum percentages of valve openings within which the {gain is unity within, say. 25%. Valve rangeability should be defined as the ratio of these valve openings. Other valve characteristics should also be defined in this same manner with their rangeabilities also being stated as the ratio of the valve openings within which the valve gain is within 25% of | its stated theoretical value. “Smarter” Sensors and Analyzers In the area of transmitters, there is a need for multiple-range ‘and multiple-reference units. For example, pressure trans- rirters should have both atmospheric and vacuum refer- ‘ences and should have sufficient intelligence to switch from one reference to the other, on the basis of the measurement Similarly, dip flow transmitters should have multiple spans {calibrated to 0.1% of actual span) and should have the intelligence to automatically switch from low to high span and back as the flow changes. Another “sinat"” device that 's needed is an intelligent pitot-tube-type flow transmitter val can detect the Reynolds number and the velocity at the center of the pipe and, based on those two readings, make an accurate velumetsic flow calculation In the area of on-stream, infine analysis, substantial de velopment is needed to extend the capabifities of probe-type analyzers, The needs include some simple matters such as ‘changing the probe shapes to “flat ps” for ease of clean ing, making probe cleaners more readily available, and ‘mounting probes in sight flow indicatoss for good visibility The grester challenge is 10 exten! the capabilities. of the Fiber-Optic Probe (FOP) to become the smiyersal analyser by lowering its unit cost by sharing the electronics between several probes through multiplexing. Another important goal for the analyzer industry isto produce deviees that are self-calibrating, self-diagnosing, and modulas, The cost of maintenance can be much reduced if the self-diagnostic software is capable of automatically identifying the mod ule(s) to be replaced Efficiency and Productivity Controllers In the area of control, what is most needed is to convert the tuncoordinated single loops into dedicated. multivariable en velope and matrix algorithms. This means that levels, pres- sures, and temperatures should become constraints only while the goal of the multivariable envelope should be to ‘maximize efficiency and productivity. In this sense, today's DCS units are still “empty boxes.”* New software packages are needed to “educate” and to pive “personality” to these ‘empty boxes. What is needed iy software, which, when loaded from a disk or tape, will transform a general-purpose DCS vnit-contller into an advanced snd optimized con- troller for a reactor, distillaton tower, or compressor. This “transformation”” would nigke the manufacturing of DCS hardware more evononical “empty boxes would laok the same, as they would only differ in their VO capacities, The use of such hmedware would also provide more flexibility to the user, for example, a unit ‘controller that was controlling a dryer could be switched to ‘conigol an evaporator or a pumping station. just by loading into it a different sofiware package. Once the particular software package was loaded the uait controller would still require customization, but this could be done in a menu: driven question and answer format, During the custom ization phase the user would answer questions concerning piping configuration, equipment sizes, material or heat bal lances, and the like. Such higher level software packages ‘would automatically configure and tune the individual Loops and would make relative gain calculations to minimize the interaction between loops. It will probably take a couple of decades to reach the above goals, but in order to get there, ic is necessary to set ‘our sights on these goals today, Commonsense Recommendations While talking about such sophisticated concepts as opti= mized multivariable contro. its very important to keep out feet on the ground und keep in mind that ibe best engineer isstill Murpay and sometimes even Murphy turns out to be an optimist. In order to give emphasis to the importance of common sense, | am listing here some practical recommen- dations: + Before one can control a process, one must understand it. + Being progressive does not mean that one should be a guinea pig. + Tran outdated control concept is being used, even the latest DCS system will give outdated performance. + Safety is gained through the use of multiple sensors in voting systems, median selectors, or through other redun- dant configurations + fan instrument is worth installing, it must also be worth maintaining and calibrating. + Constancy is the enemy of efficiency: pressures and tem- peratures should float 10 follow the load. + Control is stabilized as the single setpoint is replaced by ‘control gap. + Annunciators do not correct emergencies, they just throw the problems the designer did not know how to handle ips of unprepared operators, The smaller the Jannuneiator, the beter the design. + A.good process control consultant will ell the user what he ageds ts know, nt what he wants to hear. “Phe proper time for business funches is aller the system has bee started up and not before the purchase order is issued. History of the Handbook takes a lot o puta book like this together. There are some '500 sections devoted to S01 major topics in this 3000-page reference set. How does a work like this evolve? Let me tell you about the history of this handbook. It started in 1961, when I was working in the Instrument Department of an engineering design firm called Crawford & Russell, and my boss, the chief instrument engineer, got fived. 1 as 25 atthe time and was told to sun the department until they could find a replacement. So I did. Astime passed, the femporary assignment became a permanent one, and as the company grew, had to think about hiring new engi nets. This was a problem. 1 did not have the authority to supervise older, nie experienced engineers, So visited the best engineering schools in the country and hited the bright- ‘est graduates straight out of school. As a result, Tended up with soine bright youngsters who knew next te nothing shut press contra Fortunately my boss, the view prosid was a far-sighted person, and he allowed me to teach them during work hove. Friday afternoon 1 would call together the depmitment--by that time we had some 20 ‘people—and | would talk to them about some aspect of our work, The topic usually related fo the work we were doing appraxieh was practical and down-to-earth— no par ial equations and no Laplace transfer fanetions, just common sense in the “time domain,”” In fonder 1 have something 10 present on these Friday after- oF engineering, Introduction — xxi rhoons, 1 spent Friday momings preparing notes for these ‘presentations. I kept these notes in a big pile on the reference table next to my desk. These Friday sessions started in 1962, so by 1965 my pile of notes was pretty high. In 1965 the editor of an instrument magazine visited me ‘and noticed that pile, When Mr. Rimbach learned what that pile of paper was, he ssid: "You should publish that. Instru- ment engineers do not have a handbook yet, and they need He also introduced me to Nic Groenevelt, a gentleman who parted bis gray hair in the middle and was running Chilton Book Company at the time. Nic liked the idea, but hhe was concerned about my shaky English (I escaped from Hungary after the Revolution of 1956) and therefore as- signed his best editor to work with me. His name was John Milton (no kidding), and John gave me some clues on how sentences are fabricated, ‘The next years were fun, I invited the best people in the profession (Hans Baumann, Anthony Calabrese, Wilfred Howe, Dale Lupfer, Charles Mamzie, Paul Murrill, Frani Greg Shinskey, Cicil Smith) to contribute and asked Edward ‘Teller to write the preface. The bundbook was published in 1969, was a success, The Instrument Society of America recognized its value by making me the youngest ISA fellow n was nice: I Felt Chad done something worth- ever ele while By the end of the 1970s the world of process controt had ‘changed. Pneumatics were on the way out, and new ideas ‘and new approaches like DCS systems and on-stream ana- lyzers proliferated. It was time to revise the handbook. By 1975 Thad my own consulting office and therefore 1 could ‘not devote my full attention to updating the handbook. So 1 hited Kriszta Venczel to do most of the work and she did her best by inserting metric units and the like, We got some excellent new contributions (from Ed Farmer, Tom Kehoe. ‘Thomas Myron, Richard Oliver, Phillip Sehnelle, Mauro Togneri, and Theodore Williams). The second edition was ‘could have been better if I had devoted more time to it By the early 1990s the handbook was outdated again. The market had become international, instruments were matt, sardware inventions proliferated, from fiber- ‘optic probes to throttling solenoid valves. In the area of software the good old PID was overshadowed by new algo- ns for nntivaia rol, relative gain culeutations, {statistical process control, Meas time 10 get sh the third edition, ‘Ths time I decided to do it right. Estopped teaching at Yale and I cut back on consulting: in short, 1 ‘made the time needed to make the third edition one that ! can be proud of. [spent a year just reading the literature and attending conferences to decide what subject matters should be included and who would be the best people to write them. January 199} we mailed out over 1000 invitations to potential cowuthors. As the replies came in I noticed a change in the avitude of the respondents, Twenty-five years ago, in the mil-siaties, when | frst edited this handbook, thevail Introduction ‘main reason why people wanted to write was because they were knowledgeable about a particular topic—they were proud of that knowledge and wanted to share it with others. ‘This time the motivation of many seemed to be commercial. ‘Some manufacturers thought of the handbook as a means of indirect advertising. Some people in academia offered to contribute because they must publish in order to hang on to their jobs, but they had no useful knowledge to share. In short, some of the replies were disappointing. In order to protect the quality and the professional integ- rity of the handbook, 1 had to reject countless offers of ‘contribution, and eventually selected only some 100 people ‘out of the initial 1000 as coauthors. This meant that over several years, Lended up writing alot ofthe material myself, plus translating the work of some overseas contributors. ‘So now you know how this handbook evolved into what itis today. I hope you like the result and will indi useful in ‘your'daily work. In the meantime, 1 am already thinking about the ways the fourth edition could be made even more useful, and I do invite your comments and suggestions toward that goal ‘We know that there is no greater resource than the combined knowledge and professional dedication of a well- ‘educated new gencration, We live in an age when technol- ‘ogy can make the difference in overcoming the social and ‘environmental ills on this planet. It is hoped that this hand- book will make a small contribution toward that goal and that it will further improve the professional standing of instrument and process control engineers around the world Béla Lipidk Stamford, ConnecticutLIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ENGMEERING ABBREVIATIONS A a acceleration A (1) area; (2) ampere, symbol for basic St : unit of electric current; also amp A Angstrom (= 10°" m) abs absolute (eg. value) ‘AC, ac, of &€ alternating current; also ‘ACM volumetric low at actual conditions in cu bic feet per minute (= 28.32 alpm) ‘ACMH actual eubic meter per hour ACMM actual cubie meter per minute AForaf audio frequency ait attitude amp ampere; also A, aw API [AP degrees of liquid density asym asymmetrical; not symmetrical am atmosphere (= 14.7 psi) mux auxiliary 8 *Ba Balling degrees of liquid density ber (1) barometer: (2) unit of atmospheric pressure measurement (= 100KPa) borg bar gauge i) barrels (= 0.1589 m’) "Be Baumé degrees of liquid density bhp or bhp. braking horsepower (= 746 W) “Bk Barkometer degrees of liquid density bik black (wiring code color for AC “hot"* conductor) bporbp. boiling point Bq becquerel, symbol for derived SI unit of radioactivity, joules per kilogram, Sg “Br Brix degrees of liquid density BTU British thermal unit (= 1054 J) c (1) velocity of light in vacuum (3% 10" rvs); (2) centi, prefix meaning 0.01 CFM or fm cry: G cm emph ps ep ores. cSt DC or de ip cell PDT DyM Celsius degrees of temperature circa: about, approximately calorie (gram, = 4.184 J); also g-cal cui centimeter (= 10°* m') cubic centimeter per minute constant current source candela, symbol for basic SI unit of lumi- ‘ous intensity cubic foot per minute (28.32 Ipm) cubic foot per year curie (= 3.7 X 10" Bq) centimeter (= 0.01 m) ‘cubic meter per hour ‘eycles per minute; counts per minute (1) eyeles per second (= Hz); (2) counts per second; (3) centipoises (= 0.001 Pa.5) ‘cosine, trigonometric function (1) candle power; (2) circular pitch; (3) center of pressure (cp and ctp may also be used for centipoises) centi stoke D (() derivative; (2) differential as in dx/dt; (3) deci, prefix meaning 0.1; (4) depth; (5) distributed control system degree: also * (m/180 rad) diameter, also D and & dissolved oxygen differential pressure transmitter (a Fox- bboro trademark) double pole double throw (switch) digital voltmetereg. EL, emf EMI BQ or eq, exp geal GHz GM gph GPM or gpm Gy =? hh hor. List of Abbreviations E He (1) error; (2) base of natural (Naperian) logarithm; (3) exponential function; also HP or hp exp (x) as ine" HVAC (1) electric potential in voits; (2) scientific notation as in 1.SE — 03 = 1.5 x 10" cexempli gratia: for example elastic limit ibid {1) electromotive force (volts); (2) elee- 1D tromotive potential (Volts) ie ‘electromagnetic interference in, equation int tial function as in exp (= a) = IR Iso € mt frequency: also freq farad, symbol for derived St unit of capsc- itance, ampere = second per volt, ASV Fahrenheit degrees [te = (ty ~ 32V/.8) fractional horsepower (e.g., HP motor) figure fluid k fivid ounces (= 29.57 cc) kK fiber optic kcal fiber optic probe kg freezing point kg-m feet per, minute (= 0.3048 n/m) feet per second (= 0.3048 m/s) kip full scale kPa KVA kW 6 a kWh ‘acceleration due to gravity (= 9.806 m/s") giga, prefix meaning 10° gallons (= 3.785 ltrs) framcaorie, 4.1: also eal i Giga-Hene i Geiger-Mueller tube, for radiation mon coring i gallons per hour (= 3.785 1ph) : = per minute (= 3.785 Ipm) LEL Teen (wing code color for sounded Say eonducio) cea tr dived St ait ot oe sorbed dose, joules per kilogram, Ikg 4 (a) heist (hum ture per pound of dry air; (2) henry, sym- ph bol of derived SI unit of inductance, — pm volt second per ampere, V-s/A higher heating value b horizontal hertz, symbol for derived SI unit of f quency. one per second (is) horsepower (U.S. equivalent is 746 W) heating, ventilating, and air conditionin ' ‘ibidem: in the same place inside diameter id este that is inch (= 25.4 mm) inch-pound (= 0.113 Nm) infrared intelligent temperature transmitters 4 joule, symbol for derived SI unit of et ergy. heat or work, newton-meter, Nem x Kilo, prefix meaning 1000 kelvin, symbol for SI unit of temperatur kilogram-calories (= 4184 J) kilogram symbol for basic SI unit of mas kilogram-meter (torque, = 7.233 foot pounds) thousand pounds (= 453.6 Kg) kilopascals Kilovolt-amperes, Kilowatts Kilowatthours (= 3.6 10°) t liter (= 0,001 m' = 0.2682 gallon) (1) length; (2) inductance, expressed is hhenrys tattude pound (= 0.4535 ke) lower expolosive limit Tinear limit liquid - Jumen, symbol for derived SI unit of lumi nous flux, candelasteradian, cd'st [Naperian (natural) logarithm to base © logarithm to base 10; common logerthn Tongitude Tiquitied petroleum or propane gas liters per hour (0.2642 gph) liters per minute (0.2642 gpm) linear variable differential transformer lux, symbol for derived SI unit of i luminance, lumen per square meter, ImmmA. ‘max ‘mCi or mC mp. mep. imps or mis, mR or mr ord rem MTBF MW mp “ (Q) meter, symbol for basic SI unit of Fength; (2) mulli, prefix mesning 10°°; (3) minute (temporal; also min ‘() thousand in commerce only); Mach number; (2) molecular weight; mole; (3) mega, prefix meaning 10° milliamperes (= 0,001 A) ‘maximum. millicuries (= 0.001 Ci) mean candle power ‘medium or median ‘mean effective pressure manufacturer or manufacturing milligrams (= 0.001 gr) unit of conductance, replaced by siemens, 5. gy. ‘melt index miles (= 1.609 km) prefix = 10° also y (mu) of ym and sometimes u, as in ug or ug. both meaning microgram (= 10° kg) micrometer (= 10-*m) (1) minutes (temporal); also mi; (2) mini- mum milliliters (= 0,001 1 = lec) rilimeters (= 0.001 1) ‘magnetomative force in amperes ‘mole, symbol for basic ST unit for amount of substance molecules smelting point Mega Pascal (10° Pa) miles per hour (1.609 km/h) meters per second rilliroentgens (= 0.001 R) rillirads (= 0.001 rd) liroentgen-cquivalent-man milliseconds (= 0.001 s) ‘meen time between failures megawatts (= 10° W) rillimieron (= 10" m) N newton, symbol for derived SI unit of force, kilogram-meter per second squared, kgs? Avogadro's number (= 6.023 x 10” mol") (1) nano, prefix meaning 10~*; (2) refrc- tive index nanometer (107% meter) ‘non-dispersive infrared ‘non-destructive testing oD oft ohm ae PSIG or psig pt rad List of Abbreviations xxv 0 ‘outside diameter ‘optical fiber thermometry unit of electrical resistance; also 0 (omega) ‘orange (typical wiring code color) ounce (= 0.0283 kg) P (1) pressure; (2) pico, prefix: meaning 10-* pascal, symbol for derived SI unit of stréss and pressure, newtons per square meter; Nim Pascal-second, a viscosity unit proportional bands percent; also % positive displacement picofarad (= 10°"? F) power factor acidity index (logarithm of hydrogen ion ‘concentration) Pouiseville, a viscosity unit proportional and integral piping and instrument diagram parts per billion parts per million parts per trillion precipitate or precipitated pounds per square inch (= 6.894 kPa) absolute pressure in pounds per square? inch Mn exec vac gomen ee nomzzZ> pi tho phi chi pai pexex alpha theta kappa lambda sigma gamma delta epsilon zeta omicron upsilon ‘omega