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Chapter I
CHAPTER I
Plastic Moment Redistribution
1.1. Introduction
It is known that an indeterminate beam or frame normally will not fail when the ultimate
moment capacity of just one critical section is reached. After formation of plastic hinges at the
more highly stressed sections, substantial redistribution of moments occurs at the critical
sections as loads are further increased before collapse of the structure takes place.
Redistribution of moments permits the designer to modify, within limits, the moment diagrams
for which the members are to be designed. This enables the designer to reduce the congestion
of reinforcement, which often occurs in high moment areas, such as at the junction of girders
with columns.
Method of analysis allowed in EBCS -2
i.
ii.
iii.
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RCS II
Chapter I
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RCS II
Chapter I
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RCS II
Chapter I
(el , Mel) provides point 3 on the graph and the curvature at point 2 can be found from the
ratio Mcr/Mel.
Once the proportional limit is exceeded, the concrete is well into the inelastic range, although
the steel has not yet yielded. The NA depth, C1 is less than the depth a = Kd and is changing with
increasing load as the shape of the concrete stress distribution and the steel stress changes.
It is now convenient to adopt a numerical solution to find the concrete compressive force 'C'
and the location of its centroid for any arbitrarily selected value of maximum concrete strain c
in the range el< c cu.
The compressive strain diagram is divided into an arbitrary number of steps and the
corresponding stress for each strain read from the stress-strain curve concrete. The stepwise
representation of the actual continuous stress block is integrated numerically to find C, and its
point of application is located taking moments of the concrete forces about the top of the
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering
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RCS II
Chapter I
section. The basic equilibrium requirement, C =T, can be used to find the correct location of the
NA, for the particular compressive strain selected, following an iterative procedure.
Alternative to numerical integration, formulae for determining the total compressive force as
stated in EBCS 2-1995 can be used and are given below.
i.
ii.
iii.
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RCS II
Chapter I
Figure 1.3-1
In the case of indeterminate structures, stability may be maintained even though hinges have
formed at several cross sections. The formation of such hinges in indeterminate structures
permits a redistribution of moments within the beam or frame.
For illustration let us see the behavior of an indeterminate beam of figure 1.3-2. It will be
assumed for simplicity that the beam is symmetrically reinforced, so that the negative bending
capacity is the same as the positive. Let the load P be increased gradually until the elastic
moment at the fixed support, 3PL/16 is just equal to the plastic moment capacity of the section,
Mu. This load is
Figure 1.3-2
The beam still responds elastically everywhere but at the left support. At that point the actual
fixed support can be replaced for purpose of analysis with a plastic hinge offering a known
resisting moment Mu, which makes the beam statically determinate.
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RCS II
Chapter I
The load can be increased further until the moment under the load also becomes equal to Mu,
at which load the second hinge forms. The structure is converted into a mechanism, as shown
in figure 1.3-2 c, and collapse occurs. The moment diagram at collapse is shown in figure 1.3-2d.
The magnitude of the load causing collapse is easily calculated from the geometry of figure 1.32d.
From which
By comparison of equation 1.2 and 1.1, it is evident that an increase of 12.5% is possible
beyond the load which caused the formation of the first plastic hinge, before the beam will
actually collapse. Due to the formation of plastic hinges, a redistribution of moments has
occurred such that, at failure, the ratio between positive moment and negative moment is
equal to that assumed in reinforcing the structure.
1.4. Rotation Requirement
It may be evident that there is a direct relation between the amount of redistribution desired
and the amount of inelastic rotation at the critical sections of a beam required to produce the
desired redistribution. In general, the greater the modification of the elastic-moment ratio, the
greater the required rotation capacity to accomplish that change. To illustrate, if the beam of
figure 1.2-2a had been reinforced according to the elastic-moment diagram of figure 1.2-2.b, no
inelastic-rotation capacity at all would be required. The beam would, at least in theory, yield
simultaneously at the left support and at mid-span. On the other hand, if the reinforcement at
the left support had been deliberately reduced (and the mid-span reinforcement
correspondingly increased), inelastic rotation at the support would be required before the
strength at mid-span could be realized.
Reinforced concrete members with bending are designed to have certain ductility, which
ensures that the member is capable of undergoing a certain amount of rotation after yielding of
the tension steel reinforcement and before crushing of the concrete in compression.
Generally, the amount of redistribution depends on
Hinge sections must be able to undergo necessary inelastic deformation. Since the
inelastic rotational capacity is a function of reinforcement ratio as in figure 1.4-1, this
implies an upper limit on the reinforcement,
Hinges should not occur at service load since wide cracks develop at hinge location, and
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RCS II
Chapter I
Where
In moment redistribution usually it is the maximum support moments, which are (adjusted)
reduced so that economizing in reinforcing steel and also reducing congestion of bars at the
column.
Requirements for applying moment - redistribution are:-
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RCS II
Chapter I
Calculate
a) If
, where km* is the value of km shown shaded in general design table No. 1a,
corresponding to %age moment redistribution, section is singly reinforced.
Enter the general design table 1a using km and concrete grade.
Read ks from general design table No. 1a corresponding to steel grade.
Evaluate
b) If
Calculate kmkm*
Read ks and ks' corresponding to kmkm* and steel grade from table No. 1b and No.
1a respectively.
Assume d2=d" and read (correction factor) from table No. 1a using kmkm* and
d2/d.
Read ' corresponding to d2/d and %age moment redistribution from table No. 1b.
Calculate
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RCS II
Chapter I
Calculate
a) If
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RCS II
Chapter II
CHAPTER II
CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND ONE-WAY RIBBED SLABS
2.1. Introduction
Continuous beams, one-way slabs and continuous one-way ribbed slabs are indeterminate
structures for which live load variation has to be considered. This is because dead load is always
there but live load might vary during the life time of these structures.
One-way slabs transmit their load mainly in one direction (i.e., the direction. of span). A 1m
strip is taken in the direction of span and treated similar to continuous beams.
Elastic analysis such as slope-deflection, moment distribution and matrix method or plastic
analysis or approximate method such as the use of moment coefficient or such methods as
portal or cantilever can be used.
2.2. Analysis and design of continuous beams
The three major stages in the design of a continuous beam are design for flexure, design for
shear, and design of longitudinal reinforcement details. In addition, it is necessary to consider
deflections and crack control and, in some cases, torsion. When the area supported by a beam
exceeds 37m2, it is usually possible to use a reduced live load in calculating the moments and
shears in the beam.
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RCS II
Chapter II
Such loading is shown in figure 2.2-2b and is called alternate span loading or checkerboard
loading.
The maximum negative moment at C results from loading all spans having negative influence
ordinate as shown in figure 2.2-2d and is referred as an adjacent span loading.
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RCS II
Chapter II
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RCS II
Chapter II
If
, section is singly reinforced.
Evaluate Z from
by reading value of
Evaluate
If
, section is doubly reinforced.
Evaluate Z from chart using
Evaluate
Calculate
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RCS II
Chapter II
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RCS II
Chapter II
Analysis and design is than carried out by assuming a beam of unit width with a depth equal to
the thickness of the slab, continuous over the supporting beam and span equal to the distance
between supports (in the short direction or strip A and B) as shown in figure 2.3-2. The strip
may be analyzed in the same way as singly reinforced rectangular sections. Near the ends the
panel adjacent to the girders, some load is resisted by bending in the longitudinal strips (strips
C) and less by the transvers strips (strip A). But for design purpose the effect is ignored and is
indirectly accounted by extending top reinforcements into the top of the slabs on each side of
the girders across the ends of the panel.
a)
b)
c)
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RCS II
Chapter II
The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350 mm.
The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400 mm.
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RCS II
Chapter II
The transverse ribs shall be designed for at least half the values of maximum moments
and shear force in the longitudinal ribs.
The girder supporting the joist may be rectangular or T-beam with the flange thickness
equal to the floor thickness.
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
CHAPTER III
TWO-WAY SLABS
3.1. Introduction
Slabs with the ratio of the longer to the shorter span, between 1 & 2 transfer their load in
two orthogonal directions. i.e. some portion of the load in the short direction and the
remaining portion of the load in the long direction. These slabs are called two-way slabs and
they deflect into a dish shaped curvature. This means that they have curvature in both
directions and because moments are proportional to curvature, there are moments in both
directions, which require reinforcement in the tension zone.
Figure 3.2-2
Let wx and wy be load in the x and y direction in which,
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Where kx and ky are load distributing factors in the short and long directions respectively.
Because the imaginary strips actually are part of the same slab, their deflections at the
intersection point must be the same. Equating the center deflections of the strips in the
short (x) and long (y) directions gives
Thus
Where:
Mi : is the design initial moment per unit width at the point of reference.
i : coefficient given in Table A-1 (EBCS 2-1995) as a function of Ly/Lx ratio and
support condition
pd: design uniform load
Lx, Ly : shorter and longer span of the panel respectively
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
s Support
f - field (span)
y, x - directions in the long & short span, respectively.
Division of slabs into middle and edge strips is illustrated in Fig. A-4.
The maximum design moments calculated as above apply only to the middle strips and no
redistribution shall be made.
Reinforcement in an edge strip, parallel to the edge, need not be less than minimum areas
of tension reinforcement.
Figure 3.2-4 Division of slab into middle strip and edge strip
Moment adjustment
For each support over which the slab is continuous, there will be two adjacent support
moments. The difference may be distributed between the panels at either side of support to
equalize their moments as in moment distribution method for frames.
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Steps to be followed
1. Support and span moments are first evaluated for individual panels using
coefficients from Table A-1 .
2. The unbalanced moment is distributed using the moment distribution method.
3. When the support moment is decreased, the span moments Mxf and Myf are then
increased to allow for the changes of support moments (equilibrium). This increase
is computed as: -
Flexural reinforcement
The ratio of the secondary reinforcement to the main reinforcement shall be at least
equal to 0.2.
The geometrical ratio of main reinforcement in a slab shall not be less than
The spacing between main bars shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350 mm
The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400 mm.
Load on beams
The design uniform loads on beams supporting solid slabs may be computed using: -
Where
and
The shear force carried by concrete in slab can be taken as the one given for beams.
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
A column strip is a design strip with a width on each side of a column centerline equal to
0.25 Lx or if drops with dimension not less than Lx/3 are used, a width equal to the drop
dimension. A middle strip is a design strip bounded by two column strips.
The drop panels are rectangular (may be square) and influence the distribution of moments
in the slab. The smaller dimension of the drop is at least one third of the smaller dimension
of the surrounding panels, Lx/3 and the drop may be 25 to 50 percent thicker than the rest
of the slab.
Figure 3.3.2-1 Column Supported two-way slabs (a) with beams (b) without beams
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Figure 3.3.3-1 Moment Variation (a) critical-moment section (b) moment variation along a
span (c) moment variation along the width of critical section
Longitudinal Distributions of Moments
For the determination of moment in the direction of span l1, the slab may be considered as a
broad, flat beam of width l2.
The load, P2 = wl2 per m length of span.
From the requirement of statics:
In the longitudinal direction (see fig. 3.3.3-1b)
From the above static moment in each direction, the moment in the long direction is larger
than those in the short direction unlike the situation for the slab with stiff edge beams.
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Where L1 is the panel length parallel to span, measured from centers of columns.
L2 is the panel width, measured from centers of columns
hc is the effective diameter of a column or column head (see below)
When the above condition is not satisfied, the negative design moments shall be increased.
The effective diameter of a column or column head h c is the diameter of a circle whose area
equals the cross-sectional area of the column or, if column heads are used, the area of the
column head based on the effective dimensions as defined below. In no case shall hc be
taken as greater than one-quarter of the shortest span framing in to the column.
The effective dimensions of a column head for use in calculation of h c are limited according
to the depth of the head. In any direction, the effective dimension of a head Lh shall be
taken as the lesser of the actual dimension Lho or Lh,max, where Lh,max is given by:
For a flared head, the actual dimension Lho is that measured to the center of the reinforcing
steel (see Fig. 3.3.4-1)
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Design is based on the single load case of all spans loaded with the maximum design
ultimate load.
There are at least three rows of panels of approximately equal span in the direction
being considered.
Successive span length in each direction shall not differ by more than one-third of
the longer span.
Maximum offsets of columns from either axis between center lines of successive
columns shall not exceed 10% of the span (in the direction of the offset).
Longitudinal Distribution
The distribution of design span and support moments depends on the relative stiffness of
the different sections which in turn depends on the restraint provided for the slab by the
supports. Accordingly, the distribution factors are given in the following table.
Outer support
Column
Wall
Near
center of
first span
0.083FL
-
First
interior
support
-0.063FL
0.60F
0.022FL
Center of
interior
span
0.071FL
-
Interior
support
Moment
-0.040FL -0.020FL
-0.055FL
Shear
0.45F
0.40F
0.50F
Total Column 0.040FL
0.022FL
moments
Table 3.3.5-1 Bending Moment and Shear Force Coefficients for Flat slabs of Three or
More Equal Spans.
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
NOTE:
F is the total design ultimate load on the strip of slab between adjacent columns
considered.
L is the effective span = L1-2hc/3
The limitations of Section A.4.3.1(2) of EBCS 2, need not be checked
The moments shall not be redistributed
Lateral Distribution
The design moment obtained from the above (or equivalent frame analysis) shall be divided
b/n the column and middle strips according to the following table.
Apportionment been column and middle strip expressed as
percentages of the total negative or positive design moment
Column Strip (%)
Middle Strip (%)
Negative
75
25
Positive
55
45
Table 3.3.5-2 Distribution of Design Moments in Panels of Flat Slabs
NOTE: For the case where the width of the column strip is taken as equal to that of the drop
and the middle strip is thereby increased in width, the design moments to be resisted by the
middle strip shall be increased in proportion to its increased width. The design moments to
be resisted by the column strip may be decreased by an amount such that the total positive
and the total negative design moments resisted by the column strip and middle strip
together are unchanged.
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
All spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load, and
Alternate spans with the maximum design ultimate load and all other spans
loaded with the minimum design ultimate load (1.0Gk).
(5) Each frame may be analyzed in its entirety by any elastic method. Alternatively, for
vertical loads only, each strip of floor and roof may be analyzed as a separate frame
with the columns above and below fixed in position and direction at their
extremities. In either case, the analysis shall be carried out for the "appropriate
design ultimate loads on each span calculated for a strip of slab of width equal to the
distance between center lines of the panels on each side of the columns.
Equivalent Frame Method as per ACI Code
According to the ACI Code specification, the Equivalent Frame method was developed with
the assumption that the analysis would be done using the moment distribution method.
A. Basis of Analysis
The equivalent Frame method was developed with the assumption that the analysis would
be done using the moment distribution method. For vertical loading, each floor with its
columns may be analyzed separately by assuming the columns to be fixed at the floors
above and below.
B. Moment of Inertia of Slab Beam
The slab beam includes the portion of then slab bounded by panel centerlines on each side
of the columns, together with column line beams or drop panels (if used).
The moment of inertia used for analysis may be based on the concrete cross-section,
neglecting reinforcement, but variations in cross section along the member axis should be
accounted for (see below).
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Where:
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
(
Where:
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
b) Punching Shear: perimeter shear which occurs in slabs without beams around
columns. It is characterized by formation of a truncated punching cone or pyramid
around concentrated loads or reactions. The outline of the critical section is shown in
Fig. below.
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
CHAPTER IV
COLUMNS
4.1. Introduction
A column is a vertical structural member transmitting axial compression loads with or
without moments. The cross sectional dimensions of a column are generally considerably
less than its height. Column support mainly vertical loads from the floors and roof and
transmit these loads to the foundation
In construction, the reinforcement and concrete for the beam and slabs in a floor are place
once the concrete has hardened; the reinforcement and concrete for the columns over that
floor are placed followed by the next higher floor.
Columns may be classified based on the following criteria:
a) Classification on the basis of geometry; rectangular, square, circular, L-shaped, Tshaped, etc. depending on the structural or architectural requirements.
b) Classification on the basis of composition; composite columns, in-filled columns, etc.
c) Classification on the basis of lateral reinforcement; tied columns, spiral columns.
d) Classification on the basis of manner by which lateral stability is provided to the
structure as a whole; braced columns, un-braced columns.
e) Classification on the basis of sensitivity to second order effect due to lateral
displacements; sway columns, non-sway columns.
f) Classification on the basis of degree of slenderness; short column, slender column.
g) Classification on the basis of loading: axially loaded column, columns under uni-axial
bending, columns under biaxial bending.
Composite/In-filled Columns
a) Composite Columns: Columns in which steel structural members are encased in a
concrete. Main reinforcement bars positioned with ties or spirals are placed around the
structural member.
b) In-filled Columns: Columns having steel pipes filled with plain concrete or lightly
reinforced concrete.
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Tied/Spiral Columns
a) Tied Columns: Columns where main (longitudinal) reinforcements are held in position by
separate ties spaced at equal intervals along the length. Tied columns may be, square,
rectangular, L-shaped, circular or any other required shape. And over 95% of all columns
in buildings in non-seismic regions are tied columns.
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
The initial parts of these diagrams are similar. As the maximum load is reached vertical
cracks and crushing develops in the concrete shell outside the ties or spirals, and this
concrete spalls off. When this happens in a tied column, the capacity of the core that
remains is less than the load and the concrete core crushes and the reinforcement buckles
outward between the ties. This occurs suddenly, without warning, in a brittle manner.
When the shell spalls off in spiral columns, the column doesnt fail immediately because the
strength of the core has been enhanced by the tri axial stress resulting from the
confinement of the core by the spiral reinforcement. As a result the column can undergo
large deformations before collapses (yielding of spirals). Such failure is more ductile and
gives warning to the impending failure.
Accordingly, ductility in columns can be ensured by providing spirals or closely spaced ties.
4.2. Classification of Compression Members
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
bracing members such as shear walls, elevators, stairwell shafts, diagonal bracings or a
combination of these (See Fig. 4.2.1-2). A column with in such a non-sway structure is
considered to be braced and the second order moment on such column, P-, is negligible.
This may be assumed to be the case if the frame attracts not more than 10% of the
horizontal loads.
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Where
obtained from:
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Interaction diagram
The presence of bending in axially loaded members can reduce the axial load capacity of the
member
To illustrate conceptually the interaction between moment and axial load in a column, an
idealized homogenous and elastic column with a compressive strength, f cu, equal to its
tensile strength, ftu, will be considered. For such a column failure would occurs in a
compression when the maximum stresses reached fcu as given by:
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Since reinforced concrete is not elastic and has a tensile strength that is lower than its
compressive strength, the general shape of the diagram resembles Fig. 4.3.2-3
Figure 4.3.2-3 Interaction diagram for column in combined bending and axial load
Balanced condition: For a given cross section the design axial force P b acts at one specific
eccentricity eb to cause failure by simultaneous yielding of tension steel and crushing of
concrete (see Fig. 4.3.2- 3)
Tension failure controls: For a very large eccentricity of the axial force Pn, the failure is
triggered by yielding of the tension steel. The horizontal axis corresponds to an infinite
value of e, i.e. pure bending at moment capacity Mo (see Fig. 4.3.2-3)
Compression failure controls: For a very small eccentricity of the axial force Pn, the failure is
governed by concrete compression. The vertical axis corresponds to e = 0 and P o is the
capacity of the column if concentrically loaded (see Fig. 4.3.2-3)
Interaction diagrams for columns are generally computed by assuming a series of strain
distributions, each corresponding to a particular point on the interaction diagram, and
computing the corresponding values of P and M (strain compatibility analysis).
The calculation process can be illustrated as follow for one particular strain distribution.
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Bending for this case is about an axis defined by the angle with respect to the x-axis. For
other values of , similar curves are obtained to define the failure surface for axial load plus
bi-axial bending.
Any combination of Pu, Mux, and Muy falling outside the surface would represent failure.
Note that the failure surface can be described either by a set of curves defined by radial
planes passing through the Pn axis or by a set of curves defined by horizontal plane
intersections, each for a constant Pn, defining the load contours (see Fig. 4.3.3-1).
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
(
where:
Chapter III
Mdx = Pdey
Mdy = Pdex
Mdxo = Mdx when Mdy = 0 (design capacity under uni-axial bending about x)
Mdyo = Mdy when Mdx = 0 (design capacity under uni-axial bending about y)
Where:
edx
Pdxo = ultimate load capacity of the section for uni axial bending with e dx only
(edy = 0)
Pdyo = ultimate load capacity of the section for uni axial bending with e dy only
(edx = 0)
Pdo = concentric axial load capacity (edx = edy = 0)
However interaction charts prepared for biaxial bending can be used for actual design. The
procedure involves:
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Where:
In Beam-and-column type plane frames in building structures with beams connecting each
column at each story level may be classified as non-sway for a given load case, when firstorder theory is used, the horizontal displacements in each story due to the design loads
(both horizontal and vertical), plus the initial sway imperfection satisfy the following
criteria.
Where:
is the horizontal displacement at the top of the story, relative to the
bottom of the story
L is the story height
H is the total horizontal reaction at the bottom of the story
N is the total vertical reaction at the bottom of the story,
For frame structures, the effects of imperfections may be allowed for in frame analysis by
means of an equivalent geometric imperfection in the form of an initial sway imperfection
(assuming that the structure is inclined to the vertical at an angle) determined by:
a. For single story frames or for structures loaded mainly at the top
Where the effects of imperfections are smaller than the effects of design horizontal actions,
their influence may be ignored. Imperfections need net be considered in accidental
combinations of actions.
The displacement in the above equation shall be determined using stiffness values for
beams and columns corresponding to the ultimate limit state. As an approximation,
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
displacements calculated using moment of inertia of the gross section may be multiplied by
the ratio of the gross column stiffness Ig to the effective column stiffness Ie (see the
following section) to obtain .
All frames including sway frames shall also be checked for adequate resistance to failure in
non-sway modes
Determination of story buckling Load Ncr
Unless more accurate methods are used, the buckling load of a story may be assumed to be
equal to that of the substitute beam-column frame defined in Fig. and may be determined
as:
Where:
EIe is the effective stiffness of the substitute column designed using the
equivalent reinforcement area.
Le is the effective length. It may be determined using the stiffness properties of the
gross concrete section for both beams and columns of the substitute frame (see Fig.
4.4-1c )
In lieu of a more accurate determination, the effective stiffness of a column EIe may be
taken as:
Where:
Ec = 1100fcd
Es is the modulus of elasticity of steel
Ic, Is, are the moments of inertia of the concrete and reinforcement sections,
respectively, of the substitute column, with respect to the centroid of the concrete
section (see Fig. 4.4-1c)
or alternatively
( )
The equivalent reinforcement areas, As, tot, in the substitute column to be used for
calculating Is and Mb may be obtained by designing the substitute column at each floor level
to carry the story design axial load and amplified sway moment at the critical section. The
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
equivalent column dimensions of the substitute column may be taken as shown in Fig,
below, in the case of rectangular columns. Circular columns may be replaced by square
columns of the same cross-sectional area. In the above, concrete cover and bar
arrangement in the substitute columns shall be taken to be the same as those of the actual
columns.
The amplified sway moment, to be used for the design of the substitute column, may be
found iteratively taking the first-order design moment in the substitute column as an initial
value.
In lieu of more accurate determination, the first-order design moment, Mdl, at the critical
section of the substitute column may be determined using:
Where:
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RCS II
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
Where:
I is the second moment of area of the section
A is cross sectional area
b) For multistory sway frames comprising rectangular sub frames, the following expression
may be used to calculate the slenderness ratio of the columns in the same story.
where: A is the sum of the cross-sectional areas of all the columns of the story
Kl is the total lateral stiffness of the columns of the story (story rigidity), with
modulus of elasticity taken as unity
L is the story height
Limits of Slenderness
The slenderness ratio of concrete columns shall not exceed 140
Second order moment in a column can be ignored if
a) For sway frames, the greater of
{
Where:
M1 and M2 are the first-order (calculated) moments at the ends, M2 being
always positive and greater in magnitude than M1, and M1 being positive if member is
bent in single curvature and negative if bent in double curvature
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering
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Figure for idealized condition is used when the support conditions of the column can be
closely represented by those shown in the figure below.
Figure 4.4-2 Effective length factors for centrally loaded columns with various idealized
conditions
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ii.
Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
The alignment chart (see Fig. 4.4-3) is used for members that are parts of a framework.
Figure 4.4-3 Alignment Charts/Nomo graph for effective length of columns in continuous
frames
iii.
Approximate equations. The effect of end restrained is quantified by the two end
restrain factors 1 and 2
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Chapter III
Or Conservatively,
Note that: for flats slab construction, an equivalent beam shall be taken as having the width
and thickness of the slab forming the column strip.
Design of columns, EBSC-2 1995
General
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering
.
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Two-way Slabs
Chapter III
The internal forces and moments may generally be determined by elastic global analysis
using either first order theory or second order theory.
a) First-order theory, using the initial geometry of the structure, may be used in the
following cases
Non-sway frames
Braced frames
Design methods which make indirect allowances for second-order effects.
b) Second-order theory, taking into account the influence of the deformation of the
structure, may be used in all cases.
A. Design of Non-sway Frames
Individual non-sway compression members shall be considered to be isolated elements and
be designed accordingly.
Design of Isolated Columns
For buildings, a design method may be used which assumes the compression members to be
isolated. The additional eccentricity induced in the column by its deflection is then
calculated as a function of slenderness ratio and curvature at the critical section
Total eccentricity
1. The total eccentricity to be used for the design of columns of constant cross-section at
the critical section is given by:
Where:
load
columns:
e2 is the second-order eccentricity
First order equivalent eccentricity
i.
ii.
For first-order moments varying linearly along the length, the equivalent
eccentricity is the higher of the following two values:
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Where: e01 and e02 are the first-order eccentricities at the ends, e02 being positive and
greater in magnitude than e01. e01 is positive if the column bents in single curvature and
negative if the column bends in double curvature.
Figure 4.4-5
iii.
For different eccentrics at the ends, (2) above, the critical end section shall be
checked for first order moments:
Where:
ii.
Where:
iii.
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Chapter III
Where:
Sway moments are those associated with the horizontal translation of the
top of story relative to the bottom of that story. They arise from horizontal loading and may
also arise from vertical loading if either the structure or the loading is asymmetrical.
As an alternative to determining
In the presence of torsional eccentricity in any floor of a structure, unless more accurate
methods are used, the sway moments due to torsion should be increased by multiplying
them by the larger moment magnification factor s, obtained for the two orthogonal
directions of the lateral loads acting on the structure.
Effect of Creep
Creep effects may be ignored if the increase in the first-order bending moments due to
creep deformation and longitudinal force does not exceed 10%.
The effect of creep can be accounted by:
a) For isolated columns in non-sway structures, creep may be allowed for by multiplying
the curvature for short-term loads( see the expression of curvature in second order
eccentricity) by (1 + d), where d, is the ratio of dead load design moment to total
design moment, always taken as positive.
b) For sway frames, the effective column stiffness may be divided by (1 + d), where d, is
as defined above.
Slender columns bent about the major axis
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering
.
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Chapter III
A slender column bent about the major axis may be treated as bi-axially loaded with initial
eccentricity ea acting about the minor axis
Biaxial Bending of Columns
a) Small Ratios of Relative Eccentricity
Columns of rectangular cross-section which are subjected to biaxial bending may be
checked separately for uni-axial bending in each respective direction provided the relative
eccentricities are such that k 0.2; where k denotes the ratio of the smaller relative
eccentricity to the larger relative eccentricity.
The relative eccentricity, for a given direction, is defined as the ratio of the total eccentricity,
allowing for initial eccentricity and second-order effects in that direction, to the column
width in the same direction.
b) Approximate Method
Columns of rectangular cross-section which are subjected to biaxial bending may be
checked separately for uni-axial bending in each respective.
If the above condition is not satisfied, the following approximate method of calculation can
be used, in the absence of more accurate methods.
For this approximate method, one-fourth of the total reinforcement must either be
distributed along each face of the column or at each corner. The column shall be designed
for uni-axial bending with the following equivalent uni-axial eccentricity of load, eeq along
the axis parallel to the larger relative eccentricity:
Where: etot denotes the total eccentricity in the direction of the larger relative eccentricity
k denotes the relative eccentricity ratio as defined in above.
may be obtained from the following table as a function of the relative normal
force
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.5
Detailing
Longitudinal Reinforcement
The area of longitudinal reinforcement shall neither be less than 0.008A c nor more
than 0.08AC. The upper limit shall be observed even where bars overlap.
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Lateral Reinforcement
The diameter of ties or spirals shall not be less than 6 mm or one quarter of the
diameter of the longitudinal bars.
The center-to-center spacing of lateral reinforcement shall not exceed:
12 times the minimum diameter of longitudinal bars.
least dimension of column
300 mm
Ties shall be arranged such that every bar or group of bars placed in a corner and
alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral support provided by the corner of a tie
with an included angle of not more than 135 0 and no bar shall be further than 150
mm clear on each side along the tie from such a laterally supported bar( see Fig. )
Up to five longitudinal bars in each corner may be secured against lateral buckling by
means of the main ties. The center-to-center distance between the outermost of
these bars and the corner bar shall not exceed 15 times the diameter of the tie (see
Fig.)
Spirals or circular ties may be used for longitudinal bars located around the
perimeter of a circle. The pitch of spirals shall not exceed 100 mm.
Figure 4.4-6 a) Measurement between laterally Supported column bars (b) Requirements
for main and intermediate ties
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