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STATE-OF-THE-ART PAPER
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Peripheral arterial disease affects approximately 12 million
people in the U.S.; approximately 20% to 30% of these patients
have diabetes. However, accurate assessment of the preva-
922
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
The pathophysiology of PAD in the diabetic population is
similar to that in the non-diabetic population. However, the
distribution of peripheral atherosclerosis in patients with
PAD and diabetes is often more distal than in patients without
diabetes, and commonly involves the tibial vessels (31).
The abnormal metabolic state that accompanies diabetes
directly contributes to the development of atherosclerosis;
proatherogenic changes include increases in vascular inflammation and alterations in multiple cell types (3).
Inflammation is an established risk factor for the development of atherosclerosis. Elevated levels of C-reactive
protein (CRP) are strongly associated with the development
of PAD. Furthermore, CRP levels are abnormally elevated
in patients with impaired glucose tolerance (32). In addition
to being a marker of atherosclerosis, elevated levels of CRP
may also be a risk factor for PAD. C-reactive protein has
procoagulant effects related to its ability to enhance expression of tissue factor (33). C-reactive protein also inhibits
endothelial cell nitric oxide (NO) synthase, resulting in
abnormal regulation of vascular tone, and increases production of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, which inhibits the
formation of fibrinolytic plasmin from plasminogen (12,34).
Most patients with diabetes and PAD demonstrate generalized endothelial cell dysfunction. In healthy vessels,
endothelial cells synthesize NO, a potent vasodilator that
inhibits platelet activation and vascular smooth muscle cell
migration. Diabetes impairs NO-mediated vasodilatation
(35). A number of mechanisms contribute to the decreased
bioavailability of endothelium-derived NO in diabetes,
including hyperglycemia, excess free fatty acids, and insulin
resistance (36,37). The effects of endothelial cell dysfunction increase arterial susceptibility to atherosclerosis.
In addition to reducing NO concentrations, diabetes increases the production of vasoconstrictors, such as
endothelin-1, which increase vascular tone and vascular
smooth muscle cell growth and migration. Diabetes also
stimulates other atherogenic pathways in vascular smooth
muscle cells. For example, hyperglycemia activates protein
kinase C and nuclear factor kappa-B, increasing the production of reactive oxygen species that promote the formation of atherosclerotic lesions (38). Vascular smooth muscle
cells cultured from patients with diabetes demonstrate
enhanced migration, an important step in the progression to
advanced plaque formation (39). These cells strengthen the
atheroma, making it less likely to rupture and cause thrombosis. However, Fukumoto et al. (40) demonstrated that
924
MANAGEMENT
Once diabetic individuals with PAD have been identified,
the aim of medical management is to aggressively modify
cardiovascular risk factors and to prescribe antiplatelet
therapy. It is also important to relieve the symptoms of
intermittent claudication in order to improve functional
status and quality of life.
Risk factor modification. Atherosclerotic risk factors for
PAD include cigarette smoking, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and
hypertension. Treatment goals are summarized in Table 1.
Cigarette smoking is the most important risk factor for the development and progression of
PAD. The amount and duration of tobacco use correlate
directly with the development and progression of PAD (57).
Smoking cessation increases long-term survival in patients
CIGARETTE SMOKING.
924
MANAGEMENT
Once diabetic individuals with PAD have been identified,
the aim of medical management is to aggressively modify
cardiovascular risk factors and to prescribe antiplatelet
therapy. It is also important to relieve the symptoms of
intermittent claudication in order to improve functional
status and quality of life.
Risk factor modification. Atherosclerotic risk factors for
PAD include cigarette smoking, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and
hypertension. Treatment goals are summarized in Table 1.
Cigarette smoking is the most important risk factor for the development and progression of
PAD. The amount and duration of tobacco use correlate
directly with the development and progression of PAD (57).
Smoking cessation increases long-term survival in patients
CIGARETTE SMOKING.
Dyslipidemia
Hypertension
1.5
Treatment Goal
Cessation
Glycosylated hemoglobin
7%
Low-density lipoprotein
100 mg/dl*
Blood pressure
130/80 mmHg
*Consider 70 mg/dl.
PAD peripheral arterial disease.
with PAD. In one study, the 10-year survival rate was 82%
in former smokers compared with 46% in continuing
smokers (58).
An effective method of smoking cessation is nicotine
replacement therapy in combination with the oral antidepressant bupropion (59). Jorenby et al. (60) conducted a
double-blind, placebo-controlled comparison of sustainedrelease bupropion (244 subjects), a nicotine patch (244
subjects), bupropion and a nicotine patch (245 subjects),
and placebo (160 subjects) for smoking cessation. The
abstinence rates at 12 months were 15.6% in the placebo
group, compared with 16.4% in the nicotine-patch group,
30.3% in the bupropion group (p 0.001), and 35.5% in
the group given bupropion and the nicotine patch (p
0.001). Although abstinence rates were higher with combination therapy than with bupropion alone, the difference
was not statistically significant. In a recent trial, a combination of physician advice, nicotine replacement therapy,
and counseling has been shown to improve long-term
mortality (61).
Data to support aggressive glycemic control to
reduce the cardiovascular risk associated with PAD are
lacking. In the UKPDS, there was evidence that intensive
glycemic control with a sulphonylurea or insulin produced a
non-significant 16% risk reduction for MI and sudden death
compared with conventional diabetic control with diet (62).
However, there were no significant differences in diabetesrelated mortality or all-cause mortality between the intensive and conventional groups. Most of the risk reduction in
the any diabetes-related aggregate end point was due to a
25% reduction in microvascular end points (retinopathy,
vitreous hemorrhage, or renal failure) rather than macrovascular end points (MI, sudden death, stroke, amputation, or
death due to PAD). Current guidelines from the ADA
recommend a target glycosylated hemoglobin level of
7.0% in diabetic individuals in order to prevent microvascular complications (63). It should be noted that the current
recommendations for glucose control from the ADA consensus statement are not based on clinical trial evidence in
patients with diabetes and PAD. Further study is warranted
in this population, in particular with agents that improve
insulin sensitivity.
DIABETES.
925
DYSLIPIDEMIA. Several large trials with 3-hydroxy-3methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors have demonstrated significant reductions in cardiovascular event rates
in patients with PAD and co-existing CAD (52,64). Lipidlowering therapy also decreases cardiovascular events in
diabetes. Indeed, patients with diabetes may experience
greater risk reduction by lipid lowering than non-diabetic
individuals. In the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study,
simvastatin reduced the risk of total mortality by 43% in
patients with diabetes compared with 29% in those without
the disease (65). Although there are no direct data on
treating dyslipidemia in patients with both diabetes and
PAD, published guidelines recommend a target LDL cholesterol level of 70 mg/dl in this very high-risk group (50).
The ADA consensus statement recommends a target LDL
cholesterol level of 100 mg/dl (12). As previously stated,
we acknowledge the discrepancy between the published guidelines and the ADA consensus statement, but in the absence of
clinical trial data, we would recommend an LDL cholesterol
target of 70 mg/dl in patients with diabetes and PAD.
Recently, the Collaborative AtoRvastatin Diabetes Study
(CARDS) (66) evaluated the efficacy of atorvastatin for the
primary prevention of cardiovascular events in 2,838 patients with diabetes and at least one other risk factor for
CAD, but without elevated LDL cholesterol levels. The
risk of reaching the primary end point of a first acute major
cardiovascular event was reduced by 37% with atorvastatin
relative to placebo. The CARDS study validated an aggressive approach to lipid management for the primary prevention
of cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes at risk for
CAD, irrespective of pre-treatment LDL cholesterol levels.
926
agent, and that those with PAD may benefit more by taking
clopidogrel than aspirin (12).
Symptomatic PAD. To relieve the symptoms of intermittent claudication, patients should exercise regularly. The
best results with exercise therapy are achieved under supervision, and should consist of repetitive daily walks with
intermittent periods of rest and weekly increases in walking
time and distance (14,78). Drug therapy can be added as
adjunctive treatment to an exercise program, although this
combination has not been well studied (55).
Currently, two medications are approved in the U.S. for
the symptomatic treatment of intermittent claudication:
pentoxifylline and cilostazol. Pentoxifylline, a hemorrheological agent, decreases blood viscosity and improves
erythrocyte flexibility (79). The results of clinical trials
demonstrating the efficacy of pentoxifylline in improving
treadmill-walking distance have been equivocal, and there
are insufficient data to justify generalized use in PAD (80).
Cilostazol, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, is probably the
most effective agent available in the U.S. Cilostazol (100 mg
twice daily) has been shown to improve maximal walking
distance by 40% to 50% compared with placebo (81,82). In
a direct comparison, the mean maximal walking distance in
PAD patients treated with cilostazol for 24 weeks was
significantly greater compared with that of patients who
received pentoxifylline or placebo (107, 64, and 65 m,
respectively) (Fig. 3) (83). Because of concerns about the
potential risk of mortality, cilostazol is contraindicated if any
degree of systolic or diastolic heart failure is present (12).
Various studies have evaluated prostacyclin, prostacyclin
analogues (iloprost and beraprost), and intravenous infusion
of prostaglandin E1 for the treatment of intermittent clau-
927
general revascularization techniques exist: endovascular interventions and open surgical procedures. Endovascular
revascularization has increased in popularity in recent years;
data available from the U.S. reveals a more than five-fold
increase in endovascular interventions from 1980 to 2000 (87).
In general, endovascular revascularization is more appropriate in patients with relatively focal disease in arteries
above the knee; however, short-term success rates for
opening long totally occluded vessels and below-the-knee
arteries are improving. To date, the best results have been
achieved in the aortoiliac vessels, where one-year patency
rates of 80% to 90% have been demonstrated (17,88).
In diabetes, open surgical revascularization tends to have
greater durability than endovascular procedures. Bypass to
the tibial or pedal vessels with autogenous vein is the most
predictable method of improving blood flow to the threatened limb (12). Indeed, surgical bypass with greater saphenous vein is the procedure of choice for patients with
diabetes and tibial disease.
Revascularization is the definitive therapy for the management of patients with CLI, with the aim of healing
ischemic ulcers and preventing limb loss. Surgical revascularization is generally superior to endovascular procedures
(3). Although most ischemic limbs can be revascularized,
lack of a target vessel, unavailability of an autogenous vein,
or irreversible gangrene may mean that some cannot. In
these patients, amputation may be a better option than
prolonged medical treatment (12).
Amputation. A careful program of medical and surgical
interventions can prevent most limb amputations. However,
amputation may represent an acceptable option for patients
facing a prolonged course of treatment and a poor prognosis
for a successful outcome. Amputation is indicated when
there is overwhelming infection that threatens the patients
life, or when necrosis secondary to a major arterial occlusion
has destroyed the foot.
CONCLUSIONS
Peripheral arterial disease is a common cardiovascular complication in patients with diabetes. The risk of developing
PAD is much higher in patients with diabetes, and the
disease is more severe and progresses more rapidly than in
non-diabetic individuals. Moreover, the presence of PAD is
a potent marker of increased cardiovascular risk. If PAD is
identified on the basis of an ABI of 0.90, its prevalence in
patients with diabetes may be as high as 29%.
Because the major threat to patients with diabetes and
PAD is from cardiovascular events, the primary therapeutic
goal is to modify atherosclerotic risk factors. Risk factor
management includes lifestyle modifications, treating associated conditions (diabetes, dyslipidemia, and hypertension), and preventing ischemic events with aggressive
antiplatelet therapy such as clopidogrel. Pharmacologic
therapies to improve symptomatic PAD include cilostazol.
A supervised exercise program or cilostazol are the preferred
928
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