Frequency Converters

Schematics of an AC VSD with DC Link

Interface to control systems, commands and monitoring
Controller
Controls signals

Rectifier
(AC to DC)
Network

Measurements

Inverter
(DC to AC)
DC Link

Motor
Motor supply

Control of Power Semiconductors

ON

Conduction
Losses

OFF

Switching
Losses

Off-state
Losses

Power Semiconductors
Uncontrolled devices

The diode is an uncontrolled device.

It will conduct current if positively biased, and block for currents when
negatively biased, depending on the surrounding conditions.

i
+
u
-

i
symbol

ui char.

ideal

analogy

Power Semiconductors
Turn-on controllable devices

The thyristor is a device that without a gate firing signal will block currents in both
directions. If positively biased and in blocking mode, a gate firing signal (current
pulse) is given, the thyristor will conduct until the surrounding circuits force the
current to reverse. The thyristor will then enter blocking mode by itself, until
positively biased and a new gate firing signal is given.

i
+
u
-

i
symbol

ui char.

ideal

analogy

Power Semiconductors
Turn-on and turn-off controllable devices

The transistor is the most known component.

If positively biased, the transistor can be turned on from a blocking condition by

giving a continuous gate firing signal. If removing the gate firing signal, the transistor
will re-enter blocking mode, even if positively biased. A transistor is normally not
designed to tolerate negative voltage bias, unless special considerations

i
+
u
-

i
symbol

ui char.

ideal

analogy

Variable Speed Drives (VSD)

The most commonly used converters for motor drives are:
Voltage source inverter (VSI) type converters
for AC motors, normally asynchronous motors
Cycloconverters (Cyclo) for AC motors,
normally for synchronous motors
Current source inverter type (CSI) converters
for AC motors, normally synchronous motors
DC converters, or SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
for DC motors

DC Motor
Ia
n

DC

+
Ua
-

E
RxIa

E=
nxIfxke

Ua,max
If,max

Ia
+
-

Ua

Ua=
E+RxIa

If
n

Control Strategies for AM (IM)

Scalar Control
Rotor Flux Vector Control
Stator Flux Vector Control

Rs Ls
Vs

Rm

Lr R r / s
Lm

R s Ls
Vs

n:1

Rm

L*r R*r / s
Lm

AC Motor
ia
n

AC

Ia

+
ua
-

Ua,max

E
max

R
+
-

E=
nxxke

Ua

Ua=
E+(jL+R)xIa=
E+(j2fL+R)xIa =
E+(j2PnL+R)xIa

(jL+R)xIa
n

DOL Asynchronous Motor

Stator current

Torque

Load curves
- full pitch
- zero pitch
Speed

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1
Slip

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

n
ns
ns n
ns

DC Drive (SCR - silicon controlled rectifier)

cos = 0...0.96

constant current

PM

CSI Drive and Synchronous motor

constant current

cos = 0...0.96

six-step waveform

PM

Cycloconverter and Synchronous Motor

PM

Voltage Source Inverters (VSI)

constant voltage
cos = 0.95
(constant)

near sinusoidal
currents

PM

DOL
asynchronous
motor + CPP

SCR DC
motor drive

Cycloconverter

CSI (LCI)

Typ. 5 x rated
current

0
(transformer
inrush)
0

0
(transformer
inrush)
0

0
(transformer
inrush)

Up to 50% of
rated torque
0

F(torque)

F(torque)

F(torque)

Power Factor - full load

45-55%
of nominal
0.85

> 0.9

> 0.76

> 0.9

> 0.95

Power factor variation with

load (cos)

0.15 .. 0.85
(non-linear)

0 .. 0.9
(prop. speed)

0 .. 0.76
(prop. speed)

0 .. 0.9
(prop. speed)

> 0.95

( constant)

Dynamic response (power,

torque)

3-5 sec
(pitch control)

< 100 ms

< 100 ms

Slower

< 50 ms

None

Smooth

Smooth

Pulsating

Smooth

Smooth if
negative thrust
allowed

Discontinuous

Smooth

Pulsating

Smooth

Efficiency at full load

High

Lower

High

High

High

Harmonic distortion:
- at low speed /thrust
- at full speed /thrust

None
None

F(torque)
F(torque)

F(torque)
F(torque)

F(torque)
F(torque)

0
F(power)

Short circuit contribution

Typ. 5 x
nominal
power

No

No

No

No

Motor matching required

Some

Some

Yes

No

No

Yes

No (sliprings)

No (sliprings)

No

Start-up amps

Start-up torque transients

Power consumption, low
thrust
Amps at low thrust

Torque ripple
Zero-thrust crossing

Commutator

Typ. 2-3 x
rated torque
15% of
nominal
power

VSI PWM

0
(transformer
inrush)
0
0

12-pulse Rectifier

Vdc =
1.35xVll
Vdc =
2x1.35xVll

Ddy
transformer
Series connection

Ddy
transformer
Parallel connection

Harmonic distortion, 12-pulse

11kV line-line voltages

1750V line currents

11kV line currents

1750V D-winding currents

Generation of ON-OFF signals

Pulse Width Modulation
On
Off 0

10

15

20

Upper and lower switching

elements are switched in opposite orders:
- ON: Upper = on, Lower = off
- OFF: Upper = off, Lower = on

10

15

20

10

15

Pulse Width Modulation

PM

a
b
b-a

Three-level, Zero Voltage Clamped

a)

b)
+

Positive Current:
+

Vdc/2

Phase

Phase

Phase

Negative Current:

Vdc/2

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Phase

Phase

Phase

Motor Voltage, Current, Torque

Torque

Line to line voltage

Current

Simulation and Control Diagram

Torque
reference
Speed
limitation
Speed
reference

Speed
control
PI

Kp

Torque
limitation

Torque
reference

Motor
inertia

Torque
control loop
Torque

Speed

(1 + Tis)

Ti S

1 + Ts

Js

Load
curve

Operation Boundaries VSD IM(AM)

Constant torque
region

Field weakening
region

Maximum stator current boundary

Maximum torque boundary

Magnetic flux level

Stator voltage

Stator frequency

Pitching moment
limitation

RPM

Operation Boundaries VSD IM(AM)

Constant torque
region

Maximum torque boundary

Field weakening
region

Bollard Pull, V=0

Sailing, V>0

RPM
Speed

Quadrants of Operation
Torque
Quadrant II
Breaking
Speed<0, Torque >0

Quadrant I
Motoring
Speed>0, Torque >0

P<0

P>0

Speed
P>0

P<0

Quadrant III
Motoring
Speed<0, Torque <0

Quadrant IV
Breaking
Speed>0, Torque <0

Power Semiconductors

IGBT
Low voltage

IGCT
Medium voltage

690V Motor drive for AM(IM)

3.3kV Motor drive for AM(IM)

Harmonics

Harmonics
All periodic waveforms can be expressed as a sum of a
series of sinusoidal functions with frequency equal to the
multiple of the fundamental frequency, i.e.:
150

u (t ) =

+ ...
+ uh sin( h1t + h )
+ ...

-50

-100

-150

0
36

4
34

35

33

0
32

32

31

4
30

29

0
28

28

27

4
26

25

24

23

24

4
22

8
20

21

2
19

20

4
18

17

16

0
16

15

14

13

12

0
12

11

10

88

96

72

80

64

48

56

32

40

16

0
24

+ u3 sin(31t + 3 )

50

+ u2 sin( 21t + 2 )

udc + u1 sin(1t )

100

Ideal current waveforms, large inductor

6-pulse

Vdc =
1.35xVll

12-pulse

Example - square wave

15

h=1
h=5

10

h=7
h=11

h=13

u (t ) = 10 sin(1t )
-5

10
10
sin(51t ) + sin(71t + 3 )
5
7
+ ...
10
10
+ sin(351t ) + ... + sin(371t )
35
37
+

-10

-15

36
0

34
4

35
2

33
6

32
8

32
0

31
2

30
4

29
6

28
0

28
8

26
4

27
2

25
6

24
0

24
8

23
2

22
4

20
8

21
6

20
0

19
2

17
6
18
4

16
8

16
0

14
4

15
2

13
6

12
8

12
0

11
2

96
10
4

80

88

64

72

56

48

40

32

24

16

Harmonic Distortion
6-Pulse

h = 6 xn 1,n = 1,2 ,..

h = 5,7 ,11,13,...

25 %
20 %
15 %

Ih(6-p)
Ih(12p)

10 %
5%
0%

51

3 13
4 17
5 19
6 23
7 25
8 29
9 31
10 35
11 37
12
72 11

12-Pulse

h = 12 xn 1, n = 1,2,...
h = 11,13,23,25,... THD = 100 %

i
h=2

i (1 )

2
(h)

Harmonic Analysis

two different methods

Frequency domain calculation

Harmonic current injection and impedance models

Easy to build up large systems
Short calculation times, also with large systems
Need accurate harmonic spectrum and models

Time domain calculation

Circuit diagram modelling

Complicated to build up large systems
Time consuming to simulate large systems
Calculates accurate harmonic spectrum with
proper models

Example Power System

Vessel Loads
Propulsion Auxilliaries

Single Line

Impedance model for

harmonic current injection model
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3

Bus 1

Harm load 1

v_sin1

Generator 1

v_sin

1m

3m
2m

1m

10m

Cable 1
Load 2

2m
10

1m

Bus 2
3m
2m

1m
10
1m

2m

Load 3

Trafo 1

Load 4

2m
10
1m

50

48

46

44

42

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

Load 1

0.5m
2m

Circuit model for time simulation

Harmonic distortion, 12-pulse

11kV line-line voltages

1750V line currents

11kV line currents

1750V D-winding currents

Current and Voltage Distortion, VSI

Approx
8% THD

Theoretical vs. real 12p-harmonics

10
9
8
7

1
h

6
5
4
3
2
1

50

48

46

44

42

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

Comparison

Time simulation - Injected harmonics (Ih = 1/h)

10

Time sim.
approx
8% THDv

9
8
7

Inj. harm.
approx
20% THDv

6
5
4
3
2
1

50

48

46

44

42

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

Harmonic Analysis

two different methods

Frequency domain calculation

Harmonic current injection and impedance models

Easy to build up large systems
Short calculation times, also with large systems
Need accurate harmonic spectrum and models

Time domain calculation

Circuit diagram modelling

Complicated to build up large systems
Time consuming to simulate large systems
Calculates accurate harmonic spectrum with
proper models

Managing Harmonics
Generator design, subtransient reactance
Selection of converter type
Design of drive transformer / inductor
Passive filters
Active filters
Clean power supply
Selection of equipment
Know your system!! Analysis and freq. scan

Generator Subtransient Reactance

Harmonic currents injected in the system

distort the voltage on generator terminals
Subtransient reactance is found either as:
Average subtransient reactance: (xd+xq)/2
Negative sequence reactance: x

Low subtransient reactance will increase

generators dimensions, weight, and costs
Low subtransient reactance will increase
short circuit current

Selection of Converter Type

Different topologies have different spectrum

VSI : low harmonics
CSI : high harmonics, interharmonics
Cycle : wide band high high harmonics
DC (SCR) : high harmonics, interharmonics

Pulse number, i.e. 6, 12, 18, 24, 48,

Active front end (harmonic-less design)

Current and Voltage Distortion, CSI

Approx
10% THD

12-pulse Rectifier

Vdc =
1.35xVll
Vdc =
2x1.35xVll

Ddy
transformer
Series connection

Ddy
transformer
Parallel connection

Design of Drive Transformer

Drive transformer or inductor

High s.c. impedance reduces harmonics
High s.c. impedance give a load dependent
voltage drop, and reduced max power output

Use of Z-winding in order to achieve

quasi 24 pulse with two 12 pulse converters
quasi 48 pulse with two 24 pulse converters

EMC: Grounded shield between pri. and sec.

Passive Filters

Passive filters are used to create a low

impedance path for harmonic currents with a
serial resonance
Normally one or two parallell connected LC
filters tuned to the frequency of the worst
harmonic currents, e.g. for 12 pulse:
11th harmonic (also efficient for 13th)
Warning 1: Parallel resonance occurs normally at
about 1/2 of series resonance
Warning 2: Capacitive limit for generators

Passive Filtering

filter

filter

Passive Filtering
Z()

Lg

L
C

Aggregated
Generator / motor model

First order
undamped LC filter

Frequency Response Z()

Z
Filter

Generator
2 . . f . Lg

Resulting

5 7

11 13

f / f1

Passive Filtering - two steps

Z()

Lg

Aggregated
Generator / motor model

First order 5th harm

undamped LC filter

First order 3rd harm

undamped LC filter

Frequency response Z()

Z

Filter

Generator
2 . . f . Lg
Resulting

5 7

11 13

f / f1

M
Nonlinear load

i1

Active
filter

i2

G
i1
ig

ig = i1+i2
i2

89

87

85

83

81

79

77

75

73

71

69

67

65

63

61

59

57

55

53

51

49

47

45

43

41

39

37

35

33

31

29

27

25

23

21

19

17

15

13

11

Active Filter
HF filter

Clean Power Supply

Rotating Converter
Motor-Generator

Static Converter
PWM converter
with HF filter

UPS
PWM converter with
HF filter and battery
DC link backup

Dirty net with

high distortion

Clean net
without distortion

Rectifier
(AC to DC)

Inverter
(DC to AC)

Rectifier
(AC to DC)

Inverter
(DC to AC)

Selection of Equimpent

High tolerance for harmonic distortion

Uncompensated flouorescent light, capacitive
compensators will be overloaded
True RMS measurement circuits in protection
devices
Electronic rectifiers can be overloaded if high
distortion, avoid sensitive equipment
If necessary, local filtering or UPS supply.
Cheaper than overall filtering

Impedance model for

harmonic current injection model
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3

Bus 1

Harm load 1

v_sin1

Generator 1

v_sin

1m

3m
2m

1m

10m

Cable 1
Load 2

2m
10

1m

Bus 2
3m
2m

1m
10
1m

2m

Load 3

Trafo 1

Load 4

2m
10
1m

50

48

46

44

42

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

Load 1

0.5m
2m

Frequency Scan
Mag. (ohms)

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
10 2

10 3

10 4

10 5

10 4

10 5

Phase (degrees)

100
50
0
-50
-100
10 2

10 3

Frequency (Hz)

Frequency Scan
Mag. (ohms)

x 10 4

1.5
1
0.5
0
10 2

10 3

10 4

10 5

10 3

10 4

10 5

Phase (degrees)

100
50
0
-50
-100
10 2

Frequency (Hz)

Transient Overvoltages
Resonance
Faults (earth faults, short circuits)
Switchgear operations

Open
inductive current interruption
virtual chopping
restrikes

Close
surge voltages
prestrikes

Transient Overvoltage Management

Equipment design
power frequency:
dielectric strengtht
high frequency:
impulse voltage

Protection
Surge arresters
Surge capacitors