STEAM TURBINES

ROTODYNAMIC MACHINARY
These are devices , in which a fluid flow thru a rotating device.
Energy transfer takes place between ROTOR and the fluid , and this is
continous.
The passage of fluid causes a change of angular momentum , which generates
a Torque on the Rotor.
When energy is given from the fluid to the Rotor then it is called a TURBINE
When energy is given from the Rotor to the fluid then it is called a FAN,PUMP
or a COMPRESSOR.
Such machines are different from POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT DEVICES,
where the fluid does not pass through Rotating Machinery.
We will look at Turbines now and Compressors later.
TURBINES
Any Turbine can be classified by
a.

The direction of flow of fluid with respect to the Rotor.

b.

The manner in which the rate of change of Angular momentum is

achieved.

IMPULSE TURBINE
Here a high pressure , high enthalpy content , fluid expands in a fixed nozzle ,
and the rate of change of angular momentum of the fluid gives a Torque to the
rotor.
Flow of fluid out

Cb

The Flow in and Flow out of fluid is T

Blade.
Cb is the velocity of the Blades

Flow of fluid in

The flow of the fluid is through a passage which has a fixed mean radius , thus
the linear momentum change is Tangential to the wheel. This gives a Tangential
Force, and Hence the wheel rotates. Lets evaluate this
Cai
Cb

Cai and Cae are the axial components

velocities.

Cae

The change of momentum from right to left is given

by m( Cae Cai ) where m mass flow is assumed constant

and Cae has a negative sign as it is opposite to blade velocity
This change of momentum causes an equal and opposite force
on the Blades which will be

Fb m(Cae Cai ) and the Torque

will be TWheel m(R )(Cae Cai ) where R=wheel Radius

Since the Torque will cause a rotation so the rotational work is

W 2 NT 2 N m(R )(Cae Cai )

but Cb 2 RN so W 2 N m(R )(Cae Cai ) mCb (Cae Cai )

Now if we look at the relative velocities then we have
Cai - Cb
Cb

Cai and Cae are the axial components

velocities.

-(Cae + Cb)

If there is no friction then the relative velocity at inlet will be equal in magnitude
to the relative velocity at outlet

(Cai Cb ) ( (Cae Cb )) or (Cai 2Cb ) Cae

or W mCb (Cai Cae ) mCb (Cai Cai 2Cb ) 2 mCb (Cai Cb )

We could get the same result from analyzing the rate of change of momentum.
REACTION TURBINE
Here the flow of fluid is not in the direction of the rotor. One example is the
sprinkler
Flow of Fluid
Flow of Fluid

Rotation of
Turbine

Flow of Fluid

Another example is axial flow compressors and turbines

Fluid Flow

Rotor Disc

Nozzle Blade

Rotor Blade
Fluid Flow

Rotating Rotor Blade

Fixed
Nozzle
Blade

Flow of Fluid

Rotatio

Here the passage of the fluid through the varying Flow area causes a velocity
change , hence a reaction is imposed on the rotating blade.
The inlet and outlet velocity change in magnitude and direction
This we shall see later.
PRESSURE AND VELOCITY VARIATION IN SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE

Rotating Rotor Blade

Fixed
Nozzle
Flow of Fluid

Rotation

Boiler Pressure at Inlet

Absolute Outlet velocity from
Rotating Blade

Condensor Pressure at Outlet

Lost
velocity

Absolute Inlet velocity in Nozzle

The velocity of steam at the exit is high. Now if we could bring this velocity
down to zero then we could get more energy from the fluid.
This energy loss is due to the high velocity . Hence the difference between
Absolute exit velocity and Zero velocity is called LOST VELOCITY.

PRESSURE AND VELOCITY VARIATION IN AXIAL FLOW REACTION

TURBINE

Rotating Rotor Blade

Fixed
Nozzle
Blade

Flow of Fluid

Rotatio

Boiler Pressure at Inlet

Absolute Outlet velocity from Rotating Bla

Condensor Pressure at Outlet

Absolute Inlet velocity in Fixed Nozzle Blade

Difference between Impulse and Reaction Turbine

The main difference lies in the fact THAT THE WAY THE STEAM IS
EXPANDED IN THE TWO TURNBINES.
IMPULSE: Steam expands in Nozzle and in the moving blade passage. The
lost velocity is 3.3 % of Nozzle Outlet velocity.
6

REACTION: Steam expands in Fixed nozzle blade passages as well in the

moving blade passages. The steam expands continuously.

There are other major differences and these are annotated in the next table.
PARAMETER
Area of Blade Channels

IMPULSE TYPE
Constant
Low Power can be

REACTION TYPE
Varying( Converging)
High Power can be

developed
Requires less space as

developed
Requires more space as

Space

compared to Reaction

compared to Impulse

Efficiency

Type for the same power

Low
Suitable for small power

Type for the same power

High
Suitable for medium and

Power

Suitability

requirement
high power requirements
Blade manufacture
Not Difficult
Difficult
CHOICE OF ROTODYNAMIC MACHINES
In any turbine , as momentum rate change is utilized to get a rotational torque,
thus high rotational speeds are generated.
Because of high speeds, the rotating devices are subject to Mechanical
Stresses. On top of that if high temperature working fluid is used , then
additional thermal stresses are generated.
To distribute the stresses , the rotational torque is extracted over a number of
stages ( one stage is one nozzle and one rotor). Most turbines are multi-stages
devices.

PRESSURE RANGES.
The pressure range is also an important factor.
Steam Turbines have high Pressure Ranges, compared to Gas Turbines.
For Steam Turbines , steam can expand from 170 bars to 0.035 bars. This
means a pressure ratio of 4800. Even low pressure steam turbines have
pressure ratio P1/P2 nearly equal to 1000.
Gas Turbines on the other hand have inlet pressure of 10 bars expanding to
about 1 bar giving a pressure ratio of 10.
Generally in Steam Turbines , the High Pressure Stages are IMPULSE TYPE of
two stages , and here the Pressure drops rapidly.
Using REACTION TYPE with high pressure leads to large pressure losses.
REACTION TYPE blading in steam turbines are used for low pressure stages.
For Gas Turbines , mostly reaction blading is used , as pressure ranges are
low.
IMPULSE Staging is also used for Liquid Turbines.

ANALYSIS OF IMPULSE STEAM TURBINE

We now analyse the Impulse Steam Turbine stage. Lets look at its operation.
TU
RB
IN
E
Steam flows in at some
velocity

The steam is delivered

at an angle i
Steam expands and flows
out at some velocity

Cai
i
Cb

i is carefully selected b
will reduce the Horizont
Velocity

The steam exits the turb

e
Cai is the absolute Inlet
Cae is the absolute exit
Cb is the blade velocity

e
Cae

We now make velocity diagrams for the inlet and exit conditions

Cb

Cai

For Inlet Conditions

The two velocities give
Cri
which is at an angle i
to the blade velocity

Cri

Cb

e
Cae

Cre

For Outlet Conditions

The two velocities give
Cre
which is at an angle e
to the blade velocity

Now we combine the two velocity diagrams to get a single velocity diagram.

10

e
Cae
Cre

Cb

Cai

Cri

So Cai meets the blade velocity to give a resultant velocity Cri at i

and
Cae meets the blade velocity to give a resultant velocity Cre at e

Thus if we know i and e and the resultant velocities Cri , Cre then we can find
velocities.
THIS IS VALID ONLY IF THERE ARE NO SHOCKS IN THE PASSAGE OF

We resolve the resultant velocities into Horizontal and Vertical Components

11

Cwi

Cwe
D
Cfe

Cae
Cre

Cb

e
Cai

i
Cri

Cfi
B

C
i is called the Inlet angle

e is called the outlet angle

i is the Inlet Blade angle

e is the Outlet Blade angle

Cfi and Cfe are flow velocities across the Blade called Axial Velocities
Cfi = -Cri Sin i

and Cfe = -CreSin e

Cwi and Cwe are flow velocities in Blade direction called Whirl Velocities.
Cwi = Cri Cos i

and

Cwe = -Cre Cos e

The difference between the axial velocities Cfi - Cfe results in an associated
Axial Thrust
The change in whirl velocities gives rise to Tangential Force.

12

C
C
D
O C Aw E

w
b
i
C C e
e
C Ci C
e C i
f

C
r
AE = Cewi = eCri Cos i
e
Cwe = -Cre Cos e

a
i

B
and AD=
i
r

so change in velocity direction =

-Cre Cos e - Cri Cos i
=(Cre Cos e
+ Cri Cos i )
Tangential Force is = - (Cre Cos e
+ Cri Cos i )
The reaction to this force gives the
Torque to the wheel or the
DRIVING THRUST
So Driving Thrust is = (Cre Cos e +
Cri Cos i ) =(Cw)
DIAGRAM EFFICIENCY
Rate the
of work
done
Before
steam
hitson
thewheel
Bladeisitthe
has to pass through the Nozzle
Power Output =(Cw)(Cb)
The axial thrust on the blade is due
to the axial velocities
The change of velocity inhaxial
i
direction is = Cfe - Cfi =
NOZZLE
= Cf = -C
Sin e (-Cri Sin i )
re
ho

Cb

Axial Thrust = ( Cf) Effort is made

to keep the Cf within reasonable
limits.
If the Blade Profile is
SYMETTRICAL THEN i = e
If friction effects on the blade is
negligible then Cre = Cri
Now in real life friction is very
evident and exit velocity is reduced

13

such that where k= Blade Velocity

Co-efficient

The nozzle increases the absolute velocity Cai of the steam

Generally the velocity diagrams are

If made
ho enthalpy
steam
at inlet to nozzle and we assume
to scale andofthen
C is
w

evaluated.We
get the same
it to becan
stagnation
as Nozzle Inlet Velocity 0
results by using analysis based on
hiabsolute
= enthalpy
of steam at outlet of nozzle then we say that
velocities.

Cai 2(ho hi ) which would the max velocity achieved

Cai 2
The energy given to the blade is the KE of steam=
2
We now define a term called as Blade or Diagram Efficiency

mCb Cw
Rate of work per unit mass
(d )

energy supplied per unit mass

mCai 2

2Cb Cw
Cai 2

m
Cw CreCos e CriCos i
and if we assume no friction then C re =C ri and
if blades are symmetrical then i e so Cw 2CreCos i

CreCos i CaiCos i Cb so Cw 2(CaiCos i Cb )

so d

4(CaiCos i Cb )
C
4 b
2
Cai
Cai

Cos i

Cb

Cai

Cb
is called the Blade Speed Ratio
Cai
OPTIMUM OPERATING CONDITIONS

14

For an Ideal case of k=1=

Cre
and e i it was found that
Cri

rate of doing work =2Cb (CaiCos i Cb )

If we fix Cai and Cb then this rate is a maximum if i 0

because Cos i 1

But this would mean that there woul d be no axial component

at the inlet as Cfi Cai Sin i
But we need an axial flow component , so as to allow the
flow to reach the blades and leave it.
We thus need some i
Now as i is increased the rate o f doing work decreases
which is certainly BAD.
However if the blade annulus area is decreased for a given

mass flow then Cfi will increase from m AiCfi . GOOD

Decrease in Annulus Area will decrease surface area of
blades , hence friction will decrease. GOOD
So choice of i gives conflicting requirements. To find
the optimum value of i we find

d (d )
to get
Cb
d

Cai

d (d )
C
=4Cos i 8 b =0 for optimum condition
Cai
Cb
d

Cai
and so 4Cos i 8

Cos i
Cb
Cb
or

for best i
Cai
Cai
2

Cb
b
C
Cos i

C
Cai
ai
Cos i
Cb
4
Cos i

2
Cai

and Max 4

Max Cos 2 i

Cos i
2Cos i

15

The rate of doing work is =2 mCb CaiCos i Cb

2Cb
which for unit mass flow at max d =2Cb Cai

C
ai

Power Output for max d per unit mass flow 2 C b

If we plot d vs

Cb
Cai

Cos i
2

Cb
Cai

16

PROBLEMS OF SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE

Single stage simple Impulse Turbines are generally used for SMALL AND LOW
POWER GENERATING MACHINES.
Generally steam velocities are around 1100 m/sec and mostly i about 20 o. So
then the optimum blade speed would be Cb/Cai =Cos(i)/ 2=0.47. This will give
a blade speed of about 500 m/sec. In practice Blade speed is generally below
420 m/sec.
Now if this blade speed is used then since
Blade Speed
where R = blade radius so when
2 (R)
we use a small blade the RPM will be very high.
We can get RPM of about 30,000 with a blade radius of 0.13m
at blade speed of 400 m/sec.

Blade RPM=

This leads to high Rotational speeds and hence high Rotational Stresses
Also High RPM means that this RPM cannot be used directly and we would
need to use REDUCTION GEARS.Now if we use large Radius Blades then we
have extensive Bending Stresses.
Furthermore in a Single Stage simple Impulse turbine , the steam velocity will
have to be high to get high power. Although there will be negligible pressure
drop . Blade velocity has to be limited for Mechanical Strength considerations.
And if inlet velocity is high, the velocity of steam at exit will also be high. Thus
not all energy is extracted by the turbine blades, and less power is obtained.
The leaving velocity will be Cae and the leaving loss will be (Cae)2/2 (KE).
This can be as high as 11 % of input energy.
IN ALL MATTERS THE SIMPLE IMPULSE SINGLE STAGE TURBINE IS NOT
A GOOD OPTION.
We thus try to improve the efficiency of the Simple Impulse Turbine by what is
commonly referred as COMPOUNDING ( Multi-staging). The main effort is to
reduce blade speed and improve energy extraction.
We can have two methods of Compounding ie
17

A. PRESSURE COMPOUNDING(Rateau Turbine)

B. VELOCITY COMPOUNDING ( Curtis Turbine)
PRESSURE COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE

In a simple Impulse Turbine , the pressure drop or expansion of steam is mostly

done in the nozzles. If we could carry out these in a number of steps , by using
a series of Impulse Turbines on the same shaft.
Each combination of nozzle and blade is called a stage.
Each stage is separated by partitions called diaphragms.
This process is equal to splitting of the entire pressure drop, by a series of
small pressure drops.HENCE IT IS CALLED PRESSURE COMPOUNDING.
Pressure compounding allows small changes of heat energy into KE in Nozzle.
Thus steam velocities are lower.
THIS RESULTS IN LOW BLADE SPEED AND HENCE RPM.
So by increasing the stages we can lower the blade speed and RPM.

18

The loss of velocity is nearly of the same ratio of each stage , as it would be for
a single stage Impulse Turbine. Sometimes two or three shafts are used to get
different speeds and power arrangements.
VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE
The simple impulse stage turbine is found to be lacking to extract sufficient KE
from the steam, because of lack of time during flow. One arrangement to
overcome this was the PRESSURE COMPOUNDED TURBINE. The other
method is to use a VELOCITY COMPOUNDED TURBINE. This type of Turbine
is called CURTIS TURBINE.

19

In a velocity compounded Impulse Turbine we have one or two sets of Nozzles

followed by rows of moving blades. Between the moving blades are placed
Guide Blades. Here the pressure does not drop in the moving blades. Velocity
drops considerably in the moving blades and less in fixed blades.
The fixed blades lose velocity because of friction as they do not take any
energy from the steam
This way the KE is extracted by various stages , while maintaining a low Blade
Speed. The loss of velocity is also small.
In a velocity compounded turbine , the steam velocities are high but the Blade
velocity is Low.
Also the Inlet velocity to Fixed Blade = Exit Absolute velocity of Previous
Moving Blade.
Lets look at the velocity diagram of a two stage machine
i1

e1

Cb

e1

Cae1

Cai1

Cre1

i2

e2
Cae2
Cre2

i1

Cri1

Cb

e2

i2

Cai2

Cri2

Work done in first Row = m Cb Cw 1

Work done in Second Row = m Cb Cw 2

Total Work m Cb Cw 1 Cw 2
20

If the moving and fixed blades are symmetrical and k=1 for each stage then for
Maximum blade or Diagram Efficiency we can find that
Cos i 1
Cb

when d is maximum
Cai 1
4
Generally for velocity compounded impulse turbine , the final exit velocity is
axial ie e = 90 o. In such cases it is found that

d Cos 2 i 1

Thus for a two stage velocity compounded turbine

Rate of work per unit mass flowat Max d 8 Cb

And if we compare this with one stage VC Turbine then

Rate of work per unit mass flow at Max d 2 Cb

THE ENTHALPY DROP IN 2-ROW TURBINE IS FOUR TIMES THE 1-ROW

TURBINE .
The variation of d with Cb/Cai1 is as shown below

21

Cos i 1
4

Cb
Cai

Similar analysis could be done for more than two stages. Analysis shows that

Cos i 1
Cb

for maximum work

Cai 1
2n
where n is equal to number of rotating Blade Rows.

The stage efficiency of a Turbine is defined as

Stage

Work done on Blade per Kg of Steam

Total Energy supplied per kg of Steam

We shall see its derivation later. It has been found that the maximum stage
efficiencies of row arrangement is
22

Arrangement

d Max

Cb
Cai 1

One-Row
Two-Row
Three-Row

0.80
0.67
0.52

0.46
0.23
0.13

This shows that

d Max reduces with increase of rows and hence steam

consumption increases with no of row of blades. ( Denominator Increases)

Generally a three row wheel is used for small turbines for auxiliary work ie
where power requirement is infrequent
For a two row machine the blade speed ratio is 0.23 so blade velocities are
around 250 to 275 m/sec.
Compounding of various types are used to get
a.

Better efficiencies

b.

Better Blade Speeds

One other arrangement is the PRESSURE VELOCITY COMPOUNEDED

TURBINE. Its construction is shown in the next slide.This turbine is also known
as the Curtis and Moore Turbine.

23

Here the Inlet velocity to fixed Blade = Exit Absolute Velocity of Previous
Moving Blade

TURBINE BLADE HIEGHT

In Impulse Turbine , the nozzles do not occupy the complete circumference ,
leading to the Blades.
24

This is known as PARTIAL ADMISSION.

The nozzle exit area is such that continuous flow of steam takes place.
Supposing if n is the arc lengths which the nozzles cover and l is the nozzle
height then the nozzle area at exit plane ANozzle = nl

If vi is the specific volume of the steam at exit and m is the mass flow into the
blades then the

volume flow rate = mv .

i

Now at the exit of the nozzles the velocity perpendicular to the Nozzle area is
Cai 1Sin i Axial Component

25

Cb
i

Cri

Cfi

Cai

so mv i (nl )Cai 1Sin( i )

Cai1
i

Cai1 Cos(i)
Cai1 Sin(i)

Cre1
e1

t1
p1Sin(e1)

p1

p1

26

At exit the relative velocity is Cre1

Now if each blade pitch is "p1 " and thickness is "t1 "
Then the BLADE CHANNEL EXIT AREA is
A Exit Blade Channel p1Sin e1 t1 l1 where l1 Blade Hieght
Since the arc of the nozzles is "n" so number of steam
n
channels getting steam is
p1
So total blade channel area =

Thus m v e1

n
p1Sin e1 t1 l1
p1

n
p1Sin e1 t1 l1 Cre1 volume flow rate

p1
at exit

If there is continuity with no friction then m v e1 m v i1

So blade hieght is fixed by volume flow rate.
Generally the blade height is increased progressively for each row of blades.
This is because due to friction less entalphy is reduced so h e is high which
makes vexit ( specific volume) increase , so more area is required to get the
volume flow rate.
We now see example 11-3
Stage efficiency of Impulse Turbine

27

It is defined as Stage

Work done on Blade per kg of steam

Total Energy supplied per kg of steam

Cb Cwi Cwe
h1 h2

h1-h2 =the enthalpy drop in the nozzle and is the energy

supplied to the blade
Cai

2 h1 h2
2

Nozzle Efficiency Nozzle

2Cb Cw i Cwe

Cai

so from this Stage Nozzle d

AXIAL FLOW REACTION TURBINE

28

The reaction turbine has no nozzles. it has a fixed set of blades followed by a
moving set of blades. The number of blades in fixed row and in the moving row
is the same. THE FIXED BLADES ARE SHAPED LIKE NOZZLES
In nozzles P is low , and there is increase in velocity.
Fixed Blades

Moving Blades

Velocity
Pressure

Both velocity and Pressure drop in Moving Blades.

In Impulse Moving Blade only Velocity Dropped.
As the flow passes the moving blade , the change of velocity gives force on the
blades.

29

At the exit the relative velocity increases but the absolute velocity decreases.
Cwi
Cwe
D

O
i

Cb

Cae
Cfe

Cre

Cai

Cri

In an impulse turbine Cre <Cri

In a reaction turbine the fluid is further expanded in the the moving blade
channel. The net change in velocity is given by BC
Now the vector CB which generates a force on the blade.
B
C
E

30


The force on the blade is = m CB and it has 2 components

Tangential Force = m CE

Axial Force = m EB

These kind of Turbines which use steam as working fluid are called Parsons
Turbine.

DEGREE OF REACTION
Since the Pressure and Velocity both drop in the moving Blade so we define a
new term called DEGREE OF REACTION

Enthalpy drop in moving blade

Enthalpy drop in stage

p1

p2

1
2s
3s

p3
2a
3a

31

p1 Pressure at inlet of fixed blade

p2 Pressure at outlet of fixed blade
p3 Pressure at outlet of moving blade
=

h2 h3
h1 h3

For a simple impulse turbine 0

In a reaction turbine if Fixed and Moving Blades are
of same Geometry then 0.5
This is a preferred arrangement as only one type
of Blade is used.

For 0.5 the velocity diagram is similiar and we have

Cb
i

Cae

Cri
Cre

Cai

32

Cre Cai and Cri Cae and e i

Thus h1 h2

Cai

Cae
2

for fixed blade

Now we assume the velocity of steam entering the Fixed Blade is same as the
velocity leaving Moving Blade
Cai

Cae

Cae
Cai
MB

state 1

FB

MB

state 2

Cre Cri

Also for moving blade h2 h3

2
and since Cre Cai and Cri Cae
2

Cai Cae

so h2 h3
or h1 h2 h2 h3
2
h2 h3
h1 h2
and

0.5
h1 h3 2 h1 h2
2

SUCH BLADING ARE CALLED PARSONS BLADING.

Lets analyze a reaction turbine

33

O
i

Cb

Cae
Cfe

Cai

Cre

Cri

The energy given to the moving blade is

Cai

Cre

Cai

Cri

and if we have 0.5 then

2
2
Cre Cai thus the energy input becomes

Cai

Cri
2

ai

C
ri

Cri BD 2 AD 2 and Cai BD 2 OA AD

2
2
2
so Cri Cai OA AD AD 2
2
2
Cai OA 2 OA AD
2
2
Cai Cb 2 Cb CaiCos i Cb
2
2
2
Cai Cb 2 Cb CaiCos i 2 Cb
2
2
Cai Cb 2 Cb CaiCos i
2
2
Cai Cb 2 Cb CaiCos i

2
so energy input Cai
2

C
ai

Cb 2 Cb CaiCos i
2
2

34

O
i

Cb

Cae
Cfe

Cre

Cai

Cri

For the moving blade

Cwi CaiCos i

Rate of doing work

and Cwe

Cb Cw

m
CreCos e Cb CaiCos i Cb

so Cw 2CaiCos i Cb
Rate of doing work

Cb 2CaiCos i Cb

m
SO FOR PARSON ' S BLADING

Cb 2CaiCos i Cb
Rate of doing work

2
2
Energy input
Cai Cb 2 Cb CaiCos i
2
C

C
2 b 2Cos i b
2Cb 2CaiCos i Cb
C
Cai
ai

2
2
2
C
C

Cai Cb 2 Cb CaiCos i
1 b
2 b Cos i
Cai
C ai

where

Cb
Blade Speed Ratio
Cai

Lets see example 11-4

35

OPTIMUM OPERATING CONDITIONS

For a 50 % reaction turbine we have

Cb
b
C
2
Cos

i
Cai
C
Rate of doing work
ai

2
Energy input
Cb
C
1 2 b Cos i
Cai
C ai
2

Cb
Blade Speed Ratio
Cai

where

Now if we differentiate

Cb

Cai

and make = 0 then we get

Cb
Cos i
Cai

rate of doing work

Cb 2CaiCos i Cb which for
mass flow
50% reaction turbine becomes at optimum condition becomes
and as

C
rate of doing work
2
Cb 2Cai b Cb Cb Hence
mass flow
Cai

2 Cos i 2Cos i Cos i

Rate of doing work
dMax

2
Energy input
1 Cos i 2 Cos i Cos i

dMax

2 Cos i

1 Cos i

For this case the velocity diagram is

36

Cb
i
Cae

Cri

Cre

Cb C

Cai

We now look at the variation of d vs Cb/Cai for simple impulse and 50 %

reaction turbine

d Cos

2Cos 2 i
1 Cos 2 i

Cos i
2

Cos i

Cb
Cai
37

The curve of the 50 % reaction is flat near the maximum value . Thus for such a
turbine the variation of i and as result the value of Cb/Cai does not change the
value of diagram efficiency near the maximum value.
Consequently we have a flexibility in choosing Cb/Cai

We will now try to see the pressure and velocity variation of reaction Turbines.

38

Moving Blades

Fixed Blades

Velocity
Pressure

The pressure falls in both fixed and moving blade channel. The velocity goes
up and down after each stage.
Steam velocities in Reaction Turbine are less than what we get in Impulse
Turbine.
In a reaction turbine , both the Fixed and Moving Blades act as Nozzles.
Thus for reaction turbine we refer to the Blades as
Stator blades for Fixed Blades

and

Rotor Blades for Moving blades

Now since there is a pressure drop across the Rotor Blades , so the pressure
difference creates a LARGE END THRUST in a Multi-Stage turbine.
For a 50 % reaction Turbine the Axial Velocity change is Zero , and hence there
is no AXIAL THRUST.
The pressure difference does gives a Large Thrust which is greater than what
is experienced in Equivalent Impulse Turbine.
39

It is for this reasons that Reaction Turbines have LARGE THRUST BEARINGS.

One way of reducing this thrust is to admit the steam at the mid section of the
stages and allow steam to expand outwards in both directions , while passing
over Identical Set of Blades.

FIX
ED

FIX
ED
M
OV
IN
G

M
OV
IN
G

M
OV
IN
G

M
OV
IN
G

FIX
ED

This has also the effect of reducing blade height for a given total mass flow.

40

REACTION STEAM TURBINE BLADE DESIGN

Most Reaction Turbines are used in LP stages of Steam Turbines. A common
practice is to use a Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine at HP stages
followed by Reaction Turbine stages.
Now any turbine blade has some height , hence for the same RPM the speed
of the blade is greater at the top than at the bottom

Cb Tip 2 rtip RPM

rt

Cb Root 2 rRoot RP

ro

Now most blades are designed for Blade speeds calculated at mean radius

r
which is defined as Root

rTip
2

. So if we have a reaction blade designed for

50 % reaction then we will have

50% Re action at rm

Less than 50% Re action at root

More than 50% Re action at tip

because

h1 h2
ho h2

41

In blade design it is usual to keep the same blade angle the same from root to
tip. ie

e Tip e Root

and i Tip i Root

Thus there is a reduction of efficiency because of varying degree of reaction

from root to tip.
Now this can become a big problem if

When

rRoot
is low
rTip

rRoot
0.4 then we have major problems.
rTip

Lets look at a practical problem

If we have a steam turbine blade of mean radius = 0.215m with a given blade
height of 40 mm. The blade velocity at mean radius is 41.04 m/sec. The RPM is
1824 and the absolute inlet velocity is 90 m/sec at i = 20.
The value of Cf = 30.78 m/sec for a mass flow of 9000 kg/hr

rm 0.215 N 1824 so Cb Mean 2 rm

1824
41.07 m / sec
60

rTip rRoot
rTip

rm 0.215 and rTip rRoot 0.04m so

2
0.235 and rRoot 0.195 and

Cb Tip 44.87 m / sec

, Cb Root 37.22 m / sec

Cf 30.78 m / sec
If we take the absolute flow velocity to be constant from root to tip and thus the
blade inlet angle will be different at each height. Lets look at it

42

Cb Tip = 44.86
20

Tip

Cf = 30.78
Cai = 90

Cb Mean = 41.07
20

i Tip Tan
90Cos
37.78

Tip

Cai = 90

Cb Root = 37.22

i Tip Tan
90Cos
35.26

Tip

Cf = 30.78

i Tip Tan
90Cos
33.03
1

20

Cf = 30.78

Cai = 90

This variation of Inlet Blade angle from root to tip causes losses. Our effort is to
reduce losses. If rTip - rroot is small then we accept the losses. However if large
blades are used then we twist the blade to keep the i the same from tip to root.
Such Blades are difficult to manufacture and are very costly.

43

Generally for

rRoot
0.4 twisted blades are used. In steam
rTip

turbines it is generally for LP Turbines where this is done.

r
For Axial flow Gas turbines Root 0.4 so we always use
rTip
twisted blades.

LOSSES IN TURBINES
We have earlier carried out analysis for finding work done per stage , for
optimum Blade speeds. We have found that for

44

2 m Cb

Simple Impulse it is equal to

8 m Cb

Two Row Impulse it is equal to

m Cb

50% Reaction it is equal to

TO SELECT A SPECIFIC TYPE OF TURBINE WE ALSO HAVE TO LOOK AT

THE EXTENT OF LOSSES ONE IS LIKELY TO HAVE.
We will now look at the INTERNAL LOSSES as the fluid passes through the
blade passages. These are classified as
a.Friction Losses in Nozzle
b. Friction Losses in Blades

FRICTION LOSSES

c. Friction Losses at rotating disc on

which the blades are installed
a. At admission to stages

LEAKAGE LOSSES

b. At Glands and seals

FRICTION LOSSES IN NOZZLES

We have earlier seen the effect of friction in nozzles , which causes a loss of
velocity , as less enthalpy is extracted.
h
1
2a
2s
s

The same phenomena occurs in the moving blades as well. These losses
increase with the Blade speed .

45

Generally high fluid speeds cause a Turbulent Boundary Layer to develop

quickly, and if

P
is low . This Turbulent Boundary Layer gives high friction
x

losses in blades. Impulse Turbines Blades have more length of Turbulent

Boundary Layer , so they have high Friction Losses.
The Reaction Turbine Blades , have higher Laminar Boundary Layer and
Smaller Turbulent Boundary Layer as

P
is high . Hence Friction Losses are
x

less than Impulse.

However in Reaction Turbine Blades

h
is low, so a large number of stages
stage

are required. This causes a mixed effect

a.

BLADE SURFACES AREA IS INCREASED SO FRICTION

LOSSES INCREASE

b.

LOW BLADE VELOCITY DOES TEND TO REDUCE

FRICTION LOSSES.

Some Friction Losses also take place in the diaphragms

The ste
nozzle f
between
moving

Guide
Nozzle

Moving
Blade

Moving
Blade
Diaphragm

So we have
a.

The Turbine wheel rotates in space full of steam. This causes viscous
losses on wheel surface
46

b.

As the steam moves from Nozzle to blades , some of it is lost. This is

known as Admission Losses.

c.

In Impulse Turbines because of Partial Admission , Eddies are created.

This effect is known as BLADE WINDAGE LOSSES.

LEAKAGE LOSSES

Guide
Nozzle

Moving
Blade

Moving
Blade
Diaphragm

a. This takes place where the steam enters from the Nozzle to the Blade.
b. Leakage from the bottom of Diaphragm
c. Residual Losses are as a result of the inability of Blades to extract all the
enthalpy from steam.

Tendency of High Pressure steam

to escape from casing

Tendency

47

d. Leakage losses at the point where the turbine shaft enters the casing.
To overcome this we use labyrinth sealing. This minimizes steam leakage

Sometimes to prevent air from leaking in Labyrinth seals are feed with
Steam Supply at high pressure.
Further there is leakage between Blade tips and Casing. It is more
predominant in REACTION TURBINES because of Pressure Difference.
Effects of Leakage are more critical in small turbines , because clearances
have to be the same in Big or small Turbines.
Leakage is high where pressure is high. It dominates Friction Losses.
THE BEST COMPROMISE IS TO HAVE
Impulse Turbine in HP stages so as to reduce Leakage Losses
Reaction Turbine in LP stages so as to reduce friction Losses.

48

OVERALL EFFICIENCY , STAGE EFFICIENCY AND REHEAT FACTOR

In turbines we have losses due to Friction and Leakage.
These are irreversibilities , and their effect is to deny the necessary
maximum enthalpy drop in Turbines. The overall efficiency of a turbine is
defined as

h1 h2a
o
h1 h2s

h
1

2s

Now supposing we have a large number of stages, then the enthalpy will
drop in each stage. Let us designate the actual enthalpy drop in each stage
as

h1, h2 , h3 ,.. hn and

the Isentropic Process as

hs1, hs2 , hs3 ,.. hsn

49

P1

A
h1

hs1
B
hso

hs2
C

hs3

so for each stage

Stage

hi
If we see the curve above BC<hs2
hsi

Because Constant Pressure Lines merge towards Lower Entrophy

so

h
1

si

AB BC CD ...............or

si

hso

50

P1

A
h1

hs1
B
hso

hs2

hs3

Now for each stage Stage

hi
. So if each stage have
hsi

the same efficiency then ho s hsi

Now if we divide both sides by hso then we have

hsi
ho
s
hso
hso

or o s RF where

RF Reheat Factor

hsi
hso

o
1 because
s

hsi hso .
Reheat Factor is only used for Steam Turbines

51