06 - Data Transformation

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C H A P T E R
CORE
Data transformation
What do we mean by data transformation?
What is the effect of applying a log, squared or reciprocal transformation to the x
variable?
What is the effect of applying a log, squared or reciprocal transformation to the y
variable?
How do I choose which data transformation to apply?
How do I carry out a regression analysis with transformed data?
6.1 Data transformation

There are methods for tting curves to non-linear relationships using non-linear regression.
However, this procedure is mathematically complicated and the results difcult to interpret.
The method of dealing with a non-linear relationship favoured in practice is to apply a
mathematical function to one of the variables, so that the relationship between the variables
becomes closer to a straight line. By appropriate choice of the function, the scale of
measurement is stretched or compressed. There are many functions that can be used to
transform the data, but here we will consider only three. These are:
the squared transformation
the logarithmic transformation
the reciprocal transformation.
When rst confronted with data transformation, many people tend to be suspicious. However,
when we think about it from the point of view of analysing a set of data, there is nothing
special about the units of measurement used when gathering the data. In general, units used are
chosen because they are convenient for recording and reporting the data. Natural units tend
to be used; for example, seconds when recording time, or metres when recording length. But
what is the natural unit for measuring fuel economy of a car: kilometres per litre (x) or litres
per kilometre (x 1 )? In measurement, natural often tends to mean familiar. For example, to a
chemist, it is natural to measure acidity in terms of pH and the logarithm of hydrogen ion
concentration (log x) rather than the hydrogen ion concentration (x).
166
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Peter Jones, Michael Evans, Kay Lipson 2012
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Chapter 6 Data transformation
167
Generally, it is only luck if a data set reveals all its hidden information when analysed in the
form in which it was initially gathered and/or reported. It is part of the analysts role to search
out different ways of looking at the data in order to enhance our understanding of that data.
One of the most powerful tools available to help achieve this task is data transformation.
How do these transformations affect the values to which they are applied? Consider the
following table of numbers.
value
(value)2
log(value)
1/value
0.2
0.04
0.699
5
0.4
0.16
0.398
2.5
0.6
0.36
0.222
1.667
1
1
0
1
2
4
0.301
0.5
3
9
0.477
0.333
4
16
0.602
0.25
From the table we can see that the transformations have the following effects on the data values:
The squared transformation has the effect of decreasing values less than 1, and
increasing values greater than 1. Large values are increased the most. For example, 22 = 4,
and 202 = 400, so that while the values 2 and 20 are 18 units apart, the values 4 and 400
are 396 units apart. That is, the effect of the square transformation is to stretch the values.
The log transformation reduces all values, and values between 0 and 1 become negative.
Large values are reduced much more than small values. For example, log 2 = 0.301, and
log 20 = 1.301, so that while the values 2 and 20 are 18 units apart, the values 0.301 and
1.303 are only 1 unit apart. That is, the effect of the log transformation is to compress the
values. Note that the log function can be applied only to values that are greater than 0.
The reciprocal transformation again reduces all values greater than one. Large values
1
= 0.05, so that
are reduced much more than small values. For example, 12 = 0.5, and 20
while the values 2 and 20 are 18 units apart, the values 0.5 and 0.05 are only 0.45 units
apart. That is, the effect of the reciprocal transformation is to compress the large values to
an even greater extent than the log transformation.
Thus it can be seen that all transformations have a greater effect on the larger values, but this
effect varies for each transformation.
Exercise 6A
1 a Copy and complete the table.
value
1 2 3 4 5
b Use the information in the table to
2
(value)
complete the following statements
log(value)
by deleting the incorrect term.
1/value
i The squared transformation
stretches/compresses the scale.
ii The log transformation stretches/compresses the larger values.
iii The reciprocal transformation stretches/compresses the larger values.
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Essential Further Mathematics Core

value
1 2 4 8 16 32 64
b Use the information in the table to
2
(value)
complete the following statements
log(value)
by deleting the incorrect term.
1/value
i The squared transformation
stretches/compresses the larger values.
value
(value)2
log(value)
1/value
10
100
1000
10000
100000
b Use the information in the table to complete the following statements by deleting the
incorrect term.
i The squared transformation stretches/compresses the larger values.
value
(value)2
log(value)
1/value
20
10
2.5
1.25
0.625
incorrect term.
value
(value)2
log(value)
1/value
20
200
2000
20000
200000
incorrect term.
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6.2
Transforming the x-axis

We are interested in linearising the relationship between two variables, x and y, and the
transformations discussed in the previous section can be applied to either x or y (but not both
here). We will examine the effect of transforming the x-axis and the y-axis separately.
Transforming the x-axis will have the effect of moving the x values on the plot horizontally,
and leave the y values unaltered. The square, log and reciprocal transformations can be applied
to the x-axis with the following effects:
Transformation
x2
Outcome
Graph
Spreads out the high x values relative

to the smaller x values
Compresses large x values relative to

the smaller data values
Also compresses large x values relative

to the smaller data values, to a greater
extent than log x. Note that values of x
less than 1 become greater than 1, and
values of x greater than 1 become less
than 1, so that the order of the data
values is reversed.
log x
1
x
The following examples show the effect on the relationship between x and y when the squared,
log and reciprocal transformations are applied to the x values.
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November 2, 2011
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The squared transformation

Example 1
Linearising the relationship with a squared transformation
a Plot the data in the table, and comment on the

form of the relationship between x and y.
x
y
0
2
1
3
2
6
3
11
4
18
b Apply a squared transformation to the x values (x 2 ), again plot the data, and comment on
the form of the relationship between y and x 2 .
c Fit a line to the transformed data with y as the DV and x 2 as the IV. Write its equation.
d Use the equation determined from the transformed data to predict the value of y when x = 5.
Solution
y
a 1 Plot the values of y against x.

2 Decide if the form of the
relationship is linear or non-linear.
20
15
10
5
0
3 Write down your conclusion.

b 1 Construct a new table of values.
The relationship between y and x is non-linear.

x2 0 1 4 9 16
y 2 3 6 11 18
y
2 Plot the values of y against x 2 .

20
15
10
5
0
10
15
20
x2
The relationship between y and x2 is linear.
c 1 Fit a straight line to the transformed data.

2 Write down the equation of the line noting that
i the y-intercept is 2 and the slope is 1
ii the independent variable on this graph is x 2 not x.
The equation of the line is:
y = 2 + x2
5
y
20
15
10
5
0
10
15
20
x2
2
d Use the non-linear equation y = 2 + x 2 to determine When x = 5, y = 2 + 5 = 27
the value of y when x = 5.
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How to apply the squared transformation using the TI-Nspire CAS

Plot the data presented in the table below.
x
y
0
2
1
3
2
6
3
11
4
18
Use an x 2 -transformation to linearise the data, then:

t a line to the transformed data with y as the DV and x 2 as the IV. Write its
equation.
use the equation determined from the transformed data to predict the value of
y when x = 5.
Steps
1 Start a new document by pressing
2 Select Add Lists & Spreadsheet.

Enter the data into lists named x and y, as
shown.
3 Press
+ and select Add Data &
Statistics. Construct a scatterplot of y
against x. Let x be the independent variable
and y the dependent variable. The plot is
clearly non-linear.
4 Return to the Lists & Spreadsheet

+ ).
application (by pressing
To calculate the values of x 2 and store them
in a list named xsq (short for x-squared), do
the following:
a Move the cursor to the top of column C
.
and type xsq. Press
b Move the cursor to the grey cell
immediately below the xsq heading. We
need to enter the expression = x 2. To
then VAR (
),
do this, press
highlight the variable x and then press
to paste x into the formula line.
Finally, type 2 (or press ) to complete
to calculate and
the formula. Press
display the x-squared values.
Note: The dash in front of the x (i.e. x)
is automatically added when a list name is

pasted from the VAR menu.
Note: You can also type in the variable x and
then select Variable Reference when prompted.
This avoids using the VAR menu.
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5 Construct a scatterplot of y against x 2 .

+ to return to the
Press
scatterplot created earlier and change
the independent variable to xsq as follows:
a Press e until the list of variables is
displayed near the x-axis. Select the
to paste the
variable, xsq. Press
variable to the x-axis.
b A scatterplot of y against xsq (x 2 ) is
then displayed, as shown. The plot is
clearly linear.
6 Press b>Analyze>Regression>Show
Linear (a + bx) to plot the regression
line on the scatterplot.
Note that, simultaneously, the equation
of the regression line is shown.
Note: The x on the screen corresponds to the
transformed variable xsq, so we can rewrite
the equations as y = 2 + xsq or y = 2 + x 2 .
7 Write down the equation for y in terms

of x 2 and evaluate y when x = 5.
Eqn: y = 2 + x 2
when x = 5, y = 2 + 52 = 27
How to apply the squared transformation using the ClassPad

Plot the data presented in the table below.
x
y
0
2
1
3
2
6
3
11
4
18
Use an x 2 -transformation to linearise the data, then:

t a line to the transformed data with y as the DV and x 2 as the IV. Write its
equation.
use the equation determined from the transformed data to predict the value of
y when x = 5.
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Steps
1 Open the Statistics application and
enter the data into the columns
named x and y. Your screen should
look like the one shown.
2 Construct a scatterplot of y against
x. Let x be the independent variable
and y the dependent variable. The
plot is clearly non-linear.
3 To calculate the values of x 2 and
store them in a list named xsq
(i.e. x-squared):
a Tap to highlight the cell at the
top of the next empty list.
Rename by typing xsq and
.
pressing
b Tap to highlight the cell at the
bottom of the newly named
xsq column (in the row titled
Cal ). Type x 2 and press
to calculate and list the x 2
values.
xsq (i.e. x 2 ). The plot is clearly
linear.
5 Fit a line to the transformed data

and plot it on the scatterplot. Write
down its equation using y as the
DV and xsq (i.e. x 2 ) as the IV.
y = 2 + x2
Use this equation to evaluate y
when x = 5.
W hen x = 5, y = 2 + 52 = 27
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Exercise 6B
The x squared transformation
These exercises are expected to be completed with the aid of a graphics calculator.
1 a Plot the data in the table, and comment on the
x 0 1 2 3 4
form of the relationship between y and x.
y 16 15 12 7 0
b Apply a squared transformation to the x values
(x 2 ), again plot the data, and comment on the form of the relationship between y and x 2 .
c Fit a line to the transformed data and write down its equation. Use the equation to predict
2 a Plot the data in the table, and comment
on the form of the relationship between
y and x.
x
y
1 2 3
4 5
3 9 19 33 51
3 a Plot the data in the following table, and
comment on the form of the relationship
between y and x.
x
y
1 2 3
4 5
30 27 22 15 6
Data transformation is a process best performed totally within a graphics calculator
environment and we will adopt this approach for the log x and 1/x transformations.
The log transformation

How to apply the log transformation using the TI-Nspire CAS
a Plot the data presented in the table below. Comment on the form of the relationship
between x and y.
x
y
1
0
10
10
100
20
400
25
600
28
1000
30
b Apply a log transformation to the x values (log (x)) and replot the data. Again
comment on the relationship between x and y.
c Fit a line to the transformed data with y as the DV and log x as the IV. Write its equation.
d Use the equation determined from the transformed data to predict the value of y when
x = 800.
ISBN: 9781107655904
Steps
a 1 Start a new document by pressing
2 Select Add Lists & Spreadsheet.
Enter the data into lists named
x and y, as shown opposite.
175
3 Press
Statistics.
Construct a scatterplot of y against x.
Let x be the independent variable
and y the dependent variable. The plot is
clearly non-linear.
b Return to the Lists & Spreadsheet

+ ).
application (by pressing
To calculate the values of log x and
store them in a list named lx (short for
log x), complete the following:
1 Move the cursor to the top of column
.
C and type lx. Press
2 Move the cursor to the grey cell
immediately below the lx
heading and type = log(. Then press
), highlight the variable x,
VAR (
to paste x into the formula
press
line, then type ) to complete the
to calculate and
command. Press
display the log values.
Note: If your answers are not given as

decimals, refer to the Appendix to
change Mode settings to Approximate.

log x.
+ to return to the
Use
the independent variable to lx.
A scatterplot of y against lx (i.e. the log of x)
is displayed, as shown. The plot is clearly
linear.
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c Press b>Analyze>Regression>Show
line on the scatterplot.
Note that, simultaneously, the equation
of the regression line is shown.
transformed variable lx (log x), so we can rewrite
the equations as y = 0.01 + 9.92 lx or
y = 0.01 + 9.92 log x (correct to two decimal places).
Eqn: y = 0.01 + 9.92 log X

When X = 800,
y = 0.01 + 9.92 log 800
= 28.8 (to 1 d.p.)
d Write down the equation for y in terms

of log x and evaluate when x = 800.
How to apply the log transformation using the ClassPad

between x and y.
x
y
1
0
10
10
100
20
400
25
600
28
1000
30
b Apply a log transformation to the x values (log (x)) and replot the data. Again
c Fit a line to the transformed data with y as the DV and log x as the IV. Write its equation.
d Use the equation determined from the transformed data to predict the value of y
when x = 800.
Steps
a 1 Open the Statistics application
and enter the data into the
columns named x and y. Your
screen should look like the one
shown opposite.
2 Construct a scatterplot of y
against x. Let x be the
independent variable and y the
dependent variable. The plot is
clearly non-linear.
ISBN 978-1-107-65590-4
b To calculate the values of

log x and store them in a list
named lx (short for log x):
1 Tap to highlight the cell at
the top of the next empty list
(in this case, list3). Rename
by typing lx and pressing
.
2 Tap to highlight the cell at
the bottom of the newly
named lx column (in the
row titled Cal ).
Typing log(x) and pressing
calculates and lists the
values of log x.
against lx (i.e. log x). The
plot is clearly linear.
177
Note: To ensure decimal values are displayed,

Decimal should be visible in the status bar (at the
bottom). If Standard is visible, tap Standard and it
will change to Decimal.
c Fit a line to the transformed

data and plot it on the scatterplot.
Write down its equation using
y as the DV and lx (log x)
as the IV.
y = 0.01 + 9.92 log x

d Use this equation to evaluate y
when x = 800.
When x = 800,
y = 0.01 + 9.92 log 800
= 28.8 (to 1d.p.).
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Exercise 6C
The log x transformation
x
y
1 10 100 400 600 1000

30 20 10
5
2
0
b Apply a log transformation to the x values (log x),

again plot the data, and comment on the form of the relationship between y and log x.
the value of y when x = 500. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
x
y
5 10 150 500 1000

3.1 4.0 7.5 9.1 10.0
b Apply a log transformation to the x values (log x),

again plot the data, and comment on the form of the relationship between y and log x.
3 a Plot the data in the following table, and
comment on the form of the relationship
between y and x.
x
y
10
44 132 436 981
15.0 11.8 9.4 6.8 5.0
b Apply a log transformation to the x values (log x), again plot the data, and comment on
the form of the relationship between y and log x.
The reciprocal (1/x ) transformation

How to apply the reciprocal transformation
1
x
using the TI-Nspire CAS
between x and y.
x
y
1
30
2
15
3
10
4
7.5
5
6
b Apply a reciprocal transformation to the x values (1/x) and replot the data. Again
comment on the form of the relationship between x and y.
c Fit a line to the transformed data with y as the DV and 1/x as the IV. Write its equation.
d Use the equation determined from the transformed data to predict the value
of y when x = 4.
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Steps
+ .
a 1 Start a new document by pressing
2 Select Add Lists & Spreadsheet. Enter the
data into lists named x and y, as shown
opposite.
3 Press
Statistics.
Construct a scatterplot of y against x. Let x
be the independent variable and y the
dependent
variable. The plot is clearly non-linear.
b Return to the Lists & Spreadsheet application

+ ).
(by pressing
1
To calculate the values of , complete
x
the following:
1 Move the cursor to the top of column
C and type recx (short for the
.
reciprocal of x). Press
2 Move the cursor to the grey cell
Note: If your answers are not presented as
immediately below the recx heading
decimals, refer to the Appendix to change
Mode settings to Approximate.
and type = 1 , then press VAR
) and highlight the variable x and
(
to paste into the formula
press
line. Press
to calculate and
display the 1/x values.
1/x (i.e. recx)
+ to return to the
Use
the independent variable to recx.
A scatterplot of y against recx (the
reciprocal of x) is displayed as shown.
The plot is clearly linear.
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c Press b>Analyze>Regression>Show
line on the scatterplot. Note that,
simultaneously, the equation of the
regression line is shown.
transformed variable recx (1/x), so we can rewrite
the equations as y = 5.E-14 + 30 recx or
y = 30/x (we can ignore 5.E-14 because
5.E-14 = 5 1014 0).
Eqn: y = 30/ X
When X = 4, y = 30/4 = 7.5
d Write down the equation for y in terms

of 1/x and evaluate y when x = 4
How to apply the reciprocal transformation using the ClassPad

a Plot the data presented in the table below. Comment on the relationship
between x and y.
x
y
1
30
2
15
3
10
4
7.5
5
6
b Apply a reciprocal transformation to the x values (1/x) and replot the data. Again
c Fit a line to the transformed data with y as the DV and 1/x as the IV. Write its equation.
d Use the equation determined from the transformed data to predict the value
of y when x = 4.
Steps
a 1 Open the Statistics application
and enter the data into the
columns named x and y. Your
screen should look like the one
shown opposite.
2 Construct a scatterplot of
y against x. Let x be the
independent variable and y the
dependent variable. The plot is
clearly non-linear.
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b To calculate the values of 1/x and

store them in a list named recx
(short for the reciprocal of x):
1 Tap to highlight the cell at the
top of the next empty list (in
this case, list3). Rename by
.
typing recx and pressing
2 Tap to highlight the cell at the
bottom of the newly named
recx column (in the row titled
Cal ). Typing 1 x and
calculates and
pressing
lists the 1/x values.
against recx (i.e. 1/x). The
plot is clearly linear.
c Fit a line to the transformed

data and plot it on the scatterplot.
Write down its equation using
y as the DV and recx (1/x)
as the IV.
y = 30/x
d Use this equation to evaluate y
when x = 4.
When x = 4, y = 30/4 = 7.5
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Exercise 6D
The reciprocal (1/x) transformation
x
y
2 4 6 8 10
60 30 20 15 12
b Apply a reciprocal transformation to the x values (1/x), again plot the data, and comment
on the form of the relationship between y and 1/x.
x
y
1 2 3 4 5
61 31 21 16 13
b Apply a reciprocal transformation to the x values (1/x), again plot the data, and comment
Which transformation?
What sorts of non-linear relationships can we linearise using the x2 transformation?
The x 2 transformation has the effect of stretching out the upper end of the x scale. As a guide,
relationships that have scatterplots which look like those shown below can often (but not
always) be linearised using the x to x 2 transformation. Note that for the x 2 transformation to
apply, the scatterplot should peak or bottom around x = 0.
y
What sorts of non-linear relationships can we linearise using the log x transformation?
The log x transformation has the effect of compressing the upper end of the x scale. As a guide,
always) be linearised using the x to log x transformation.
y
x
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183
1
What sorts of non-linear relationships can we linearise using the transformation?
x
As a guide, relationships that have scatterplots which look like those shown below can often
1
(but not always) be linearised using the x to transformation.
x
y
Exercise 6E
1 The table below shows the diameter (in m) of a number of umbrellas, along with the number
of people each umbrella is designed to keep dry.
Diameter
Number of people
0.50
1
0.70
2
0.85
3
1.00
4
1.10
5
a Construct a scatterplot showing the relationship between number of people and umbrella
diameter, and comment on the form.
c Fit a line to the transformed data and write down its equation. Give coefcients correct to
one decimal place. Use the equation to predict the number of people that can be kept dry
with an umbrella of diameter 1.30 m. Give answer correct to the nearest whole number.
2 The table shows the horsepower and fuel consumption in kilometres/litre of several cars.
Fuel consumption 5.2 7.3 12.6 7.1 6.3 10.1 10.5 14.6 10.9 7.7
Horsepower
155 125 75 110 138 88 80 70 100 103
a Construct a scatterplot showing the relationship between horsepower and fuel
consumption, and comment on the form. The IV is fuel consumption.
b Apply a reciprocal transformation to the x values (1/x), again plot the data and comment
the horsepower of a car with fuel consumption of 9 kilometres per litre.
6.3
Transforming the y-axis

Another way to linearise the relationship between x and y is to apply these transformations to
the y-axis. Transforming the y-axis will have the effect of moving the y values on the plot
vertically, and leave the x values unaltered. The square, log and reciprocal transformations can
be applied to the y-axis with the following effects:
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8:2

Transformation
y
Outcome
Graph
Spreads out the large y values relative

to the smaller data values
x
y
Compresses large y values relative to

the smaller data values
log y
x
y
Also compresses large y values relative

to the smaller data values, to a greater
extent than log y. Note that values of y
less than 1 become greater than 1, and
values of y greater than 1 become less
than 1, so that the order of the data
values is reversed.
1
y
Example 2
Linearising the relationship with a y-squared transformation
a Plot the data in this table, and comment on the form of the relationship between y and x.
x
y
0
0
1
3.2
2
4.5
3
5.5
4
6.3
5
7.1
b Apply a squared transformation to the y values (y 2 ), again plot the data, and comment on
the form of the relationship between y 2 and x.
c Fit a line to the transformed data with y 2 as the DV and x as the IV. Write its equation and
determine the value of y when x = 1.6.
Solution
y
8
6
4
2
0
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185
x
Y2
10.2
20.3
30.3
39.7
50.4
2 Plot the values of y 2 against x.

The relationship between y 2 and x is
linear, so that we can t a line to the data.
y2
60
50
40
30
20
10
y 2=10x
c The slope of the line is approximately

10 and the intercept is approximately
zero. Thus, remembering that the DV
is y 2 and the IV is x, the equation of
the line is y 2 = 10x.
Example 3
The equation y 2 = 10x .

When x = 1.6,
y 2 = 10 1.6 = 16 or y = 4.
Linearising the relationship with the log transformation
a Plot the data in this table, and comment on the

x
0
1
2
3
4
5
y 100 37 14
5
2
1
b Apply a log transformation to the y values (log y),
again plot the data, and comment on the form of the relationship between log y and x.
c Fit a line to the transformed data with log y as the DV and x as the IV. Write its equation and
nd the value of log y when x = 1.5.
Solution
a 1 Plot the values of log y against x.
The relationship between y and x
is non-linear.
y
100
80
60
40
20
0
x 0
1
2
3
4
5
log y 2.00 1.57 1.15 0.70 0.30 0.00
2 Plot the values of log y against x.

3 Decide if the form of the relationship is linear or
non-linear. The relationship between y and x is
log y
2.0
log y = 2 - 0.4x
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
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c The slope of the line is approximately The equation is log y = 2 0.4x.

0.4 and the intercept is approximately
When x = 1.5, log y = 2 0.4 1.5 = 1.4
2. Thus, remembering that the DV is
or y = 101.4 = 25.
log y and the IV is x, the equation of
the line is log y = 2 0.4x.
Example 4
Linearising the relationship with the 1/y transformation
a Plot the data in this table, and comment on the

x
1
2
3
4
5
y 10.0 5.0
3.3
2.5
2.0
b Apply a reciprocal transformation to the y values
(1/y), again plot the data, and comment on the form of the relationship between x and 1/y.
c Fit a line to the transformed data with log y as the DV and x as the IV. Write its equation and
nd the value of y when x = 8.
y
Solution
10

2 Decide if the form of the relationship
is linear or non-linear.
8
6
4
2
x
1/y
1
0.1
1
against x.
y
1
The relationship between and x is
y
2
0.2
3
0.3
5
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
1 = 0.1x
y
0.2
0.1
The relationship between

The equation is
4
0.4
1
y
2 Plot the values of
c Thus, remembering that the DV is

1
and the IV is x, the equation
y
1
of the line is = 0.1x.
y
1
and x is linear.
y
1
= 0.1x.
y
When x = 8,
1
= 0.1 8 = 0.8 or y = 1.25.
y
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Which transformation?
What sorts of non-linear relationships can we linearise using the y 2 transformation?
The y 2 transformation has the effect of stretching out the upper end of the y scale. As a guide,
always) be linearised using the y to y 2 transformation. Note that for the y 2 transformation to
apply, the scatterplot should peak or bottom around y = 0.
y
What sorts of non-linear relationships can we linearise using the log y transformation?
The log y transformation has the effect of compressing the upper end of the y scale. As a guide,
always) be linearised using the y to log y transformation.
y
What sorts of non-linear relationships can we linearise using the 1/y transformation?
As a guide, relationships that have scatterplots which look like those shown below can often
(but not always) be linearised using the y to 1/y transformation.
y
Exercise 6F
The y2 transformation
1 a Plot the data in the table. Comment on the
x 0
2
4
6
8 10
y 1.2 2.8 3.7 4.5 5.1 5.7
b Apply a squared transformation to the y values
(y 2 ). Plot the data, and comment on the form of the relationship between y 2 and x.
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c Fit a line to the transformed data with y 2 as the DV and x as the IV. Write its equation.
Find the value of y when x = 9.
2 a Plot the data in the table. Comment on
the relationship between y and x.
x
y
5
10
15
20
25
30
13.2 12.2 11.2 10.0 8.7 7.1
b Apply a squared transformation to the y values (y 2 ). Plot the data, and comment on the
form of the relationship between y 2 and x.
c Fit a line to the transformed data with y 2 as the DV and x as the IV. Write its equation.
The log y transformation
x
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
y 15.8 25.1 39.8 63.1 100.0
b Apply a log transformation to the y values
(log y). Plot the data and comment on the form of the relationship between log y and x.
c Fit a line to the transformed data with log y as the DV and x as the IV. Write its equation.
Find the value of log y when x = 0.6.
x 2
4
6
8
10
y 7.94 6.31 5.01 3.98 3.16
(log y). Plot the data and comment on the form of the relationship between log y and x.
Find the value of log y when x = 5.
x
1
3
5
7
9
y
7
32 147 681 3162
(log y). Plot the data, and comment on the form of the relationship between log y and x.
Find the value of log y when x = 2.
The 1/x transformation
x
1
2
3
4
5
y
1
0.5 0.33 0.25 0.20
b Apply a reciprocal transformation to the
y values (1/y). Plot the data and comment on the relationship between 1/y and x.
c Fit a line to the transformed data with 1/y as the DV and x as the IV. Write its equation.
Find the value of y when x = 2.5.
7 a Plot the data in the table. Comment
on the form of the relationship
between y and x.
x
y
11
0.43
14
0.34
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b Apply a reciprocal transformation to the y values (1/y). Plot the data and comment on
the form of the relationship between 1/y and x.
c Fit a line to the transformed data with 1/y as the DV and x as the IV. Write its equation.
d Name a y-axis transformation that should also work for the data. Try it and see.
e Name a y-axis transformation that should not work for the data. Try it and see.
Practical examples
8 The time (in minutes) taken for a local anaesthetic to take effect is related to the dose given.
To investigate this relationship a researcher collected the data shown.
Dose
Time
0.5
3.67
0.6
3.55
0.7
3.42
0.8
3.29
0.9
3.15
1.0
3.00
1.1
2.85
1.2
2.68
1.3
2.51
1.4
2.32
1.5
2.12
a Construct a scatterplot showing the relationship between the dose of anaesthetic and
time taken for it to take effect, and comment on the form.
b Apply a squared transformation to the time values (y), again plot the data, and comment
on the form of the relationship between time squared (y 2 ) and dose (x).
c Fit a line to the transformed data with time2 as the DV and dose as the IV. Write its
equation. Predict the time for the anaesthetic to take effect when the dose is 0.4 units.
9 The table below shows the number of internet users signing up with a new internet service
provider for each of the rst nine months of their rst year of operation.
Number
Month
24
1
32
2
35
3
44
4
60
5
61
6
78
7
92
8
118
9
a Construct a scatterplot showing the relationship between number of users signing up

and month, and comment on the form. Month is the independent variable.
b Apply a log transformation to the number of users (y), again plot the data, and comment
on the form of the relationship between log (number) and month (x).
c Fit a line to the transformed data with log number as the DV and month as the IV. Write
its equation. Predict the value of log number for month 10.
10 A group of ten students was given an opportunity to practise a complex matching task as
often as they liked before they were assessed on the task. The number of times they
practised the task and the number of errors made when assessed are given in the table.
Number of practices
Number of errors
1
14
2
9
2
11
4
5
5
4
6
4
7
3
7
3
9
2
11
2
a Construct a scatterplot showing the relationship between number of practices and

number of errors (y), and comment on the form.
b Apply a reciprocal (1/y) transformation to the number of errors values. Plot the data,
and comment on the form of the relationship between number 1of errors (1/y) and number of
practices (x).
c Fit a line to the transformed data with number 1of errors as the DV and number of practices
as the IV. Write its equation. Predict the number of errors when the task is practised
12 times.
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6.4 Choosing and applying the appropriate
transformation
Putting together the information in Sections 6.2 and 6.3, we can see that there may be more
than one transformation which linearises the scatterplot. The forms of the scatterplots that can
be transformed by the squared, log or reciprocal transformations can be largely classied into
one of four categories, shown as the circle of transformations.
The circle of transformations
Possible transformations
Possible transformations
y2
log x
y2
x2
1
x
log y
1
y
log x
log y
1
y
x2
1
x
Note that the transformations we have introduced in this chapter are able to linearise only
those relationships that are consistently increasing or decreasing.
The advantage of having alternatives is that, in practice, we can always try each of them to
see which gives us the best result. How do we decide which transformation is the best? The
best transformation is the one that results in the best linear model. To choose the best linear
model we will consider, for each transformation applied:
the residual plot, in order to evaluate the linearity of the transformed relationship
the value of the coefcient of determination (r 2 ): a higher value indicates a better t.
This procedure is illustrated in Example 5.
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Example 5
The data in this table gives life expectancy in years and gross national product, GNP, in dollars
for 24 countries in 1982. Using an appropriate transformation, nd a regression model for the
relationship between life expectancy in years and GNP.
Country
Nicaragua
Paraguay
Venezuela
France
West Germany
Greece
Norway
Czechoslovakia
Austria
Jordan
Sri Lanka
Brunei
GNP Life expectancy

950
58
1670
65
4250
68
11 520
74
12 280
73
4170
73
14 300
75
5540
71
9830
72
1680
61
320
67
22 260
66
Country
GNP Life expectancy
Indonesia
550
50
North Korea
930
66
Mongolia
940
64
Taiwan
2 670
72
Australia
11 220
74
Congo
1 420
48
Ethiopia
150
41
Guinea
330
44
Mauritania
520
44
Nigeria
940
49
Togo
350
48
Zaire
180
48
Source: Modern Data Analysis: A First Course in Applied Statistics, L.C. Hamilton 1990, p. 537
West Germany is now part of Germany; Czechoslovakia is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Solution
2 Plot the values of y against x, decide if

the form of the relationship is linear or
non-linear, and nd the value of the
coefcient of determination (r 2 ).
The independent variable is GNP. The

dependent variable is Life expectancy.
Life expectancy
1 Decide which of the variables is the

independent variable, and which is the
dependent variable.
GNP
The relationship between y and x is

non-linear: r 2 = 36.7%.
4 Compare the shape of this plot to those in the

circle of transformations (page 190). The
scatterplot is similar to the plot in the top
left-hand corner. Thus, y 2 , log x and 1x
are the transformations to investigate.
Suitable transformations are y 2, log x

1
and x .
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Try the y 2 transformation

5 Calculate the values of (Life expectancy)2
and plot these against GNP. Comment
on the linearity of the plot.
Life expectancy squared
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GNP
r 2 = 38.4%. The relationship between (Life

expectancy) 2 and x is still non-linear. This is
confirmed by the residual plot.
Residual
6 Fit a regression line, and nd the value of

the coefcient of determination (r 2 ).
Produce a residual plot, and use this to
comment on the form of the relationship.
GNP
7 Comment on the effect of the

transformation.
The y 2 transformation has not really helped.
Life expectancy
Try the log x transformation

8 Calculate the values of log GNP and plot
these against Life expectancy.
log GNP

r 2 . Produce a residual plot, and use this to
r 2 = 66.0%. The relationship between Life

expectancy and log GNP is closer to linear.
This is confirmed by the residual plot.
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Residual

transformation.
log GNP
Try the 1/x transformation

1
11 Calculate the values of
and plot
GNP
1
.
Life expectancy against
GNP
Life expectancy
The log x transformation has linearised the

relationship quite well.
1/GNP
r 2 = 51.5%. The relationship between Life

expectancy and 1/GNP is reasonably linear.
This is confirmed by the residual plot.
Residual

r 2 . Produce a residual plot and use this to
1/GNP

transformation.
14 Decide which transformation is the
most appropriate for this relationship.
Choose the transformation that
gives the most linear relationship
(from the residual plots) and the
highest value of r 2 .
The 1/x transformation has done a

reasonable job in linearising the relationship.
The most appropriate transformation to use
here is the log x transformation, as the
residual plot shows that the relationship
between log GNP and Life expectancy is
linear, and this model has the highest
coefficient of determination, r 2 = 66.0%.
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Using the log x transformation gives a

regression model for the relationship:
15 As the relationship between Life expectancy

and log (GNP) appears to be linear and there
are no obvious outliers, we can use the
least squares method to t a line to the data.
Using a calculator, nd the equation of the
least squares regression line and write it in
terms of the transformed variables.
Life expectancy = 14.3 + 14.5 log (GNP)
Note: The independent variable (IV) is now

log GNP, and the dependent variable (DV) is
Life expectancy.
Some comments
It might seem unnatural to talk about the wealth of a country in terms of log (GNP), yet when
we are comparing the relative wealth of countries, log (GNP) is probably a more useful measure
than GNP. For instance, knowing that the difference in GNP between Australia and Sri Lanka
is $10 900 is less informative than knowing that the difference in log (GNP) is 1.5448, which
tells us that Australias GNP is 101.5884 or 35 times that of Sri Lanka. Natural units of
measurement are more often those that are familiar rather than those that are most useful!
Exercise 6G
1 The following scatterplots show non-linear relationships. For each scatterplot, state which
of the transformations x 2 , log x, 1/x, y 2 , log y or 1/y, if any, you would apply to linearise
the relationship.
b 5
a 5
4
3
y
y
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
5
4
3
y
y
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
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2 The data below give the yield in kilograms and length in metres of 12 commercial potato
plots.
Yield (kilograms) 346 1798 152 86 436 968 686 257 2435 287 1850 1320
Length (metres) 12.1 27.4 8.3 5.5 15.7 21.5 19.3 9.0 34.2 14.7 31.9 25.3
a Construct a scatterplot showing the relationship between yield and length of plot and
comment on the form.
b Using an appropriate transformation, nd a regression model for the relationship
between yield in kilograms and length of plot in metres.
3 A recent study in Canada showed that cigarette consumption (per day) is related to cost per
pack. Some data drawn from that study is shown below.
Cost ($)
4.00 4.50 4.80 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.50
Cigarette consumption 8.0 7.4 7.0 6.4 5.9 5.5 5.0
a Construct a scatterplot showing the relationship between the cost of cigarettes and
cigarette consumption, and comment on the form.
b Using an appropriate transformation, nd a regression model for the relationship
between the cost of cigarettes and cigarette consumption.
4 The population of a large town increased over a 13-year period, as shown in the table.
a Construct a scatterplot showing the
annual population growth of the town,
and comment on the form.
b Using an appropriate transformation,
nd a regression model for the annual
population growth of the town.
Year
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Population
58860
57770
58206
59513
59983
60123
59763
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8
9
10
11
12
13
Population
61726
60387
61646
62347
64185
67158
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5 The monthly average exchange rate (to the nearest cent) between the Australian dollar and
the US dollar over a period of 18 months in the 1990s is given in the table below.
a Construct a scatterplot showing
Exchange rate
Exchange rate
the exchange rate over the 18-month Month
(US $)
Month
(US $)
period, and comment on the form.
1
0.77
10
0.75
2
0.77
11
0.75
nd a regression model for the
3
0.77
12
0.72
exchange rate over that 18-month
4
0.76
13
0.72
period.
5
0.78
14
0.69
6
0.78
15
0.69
7
0.77
16
0.68
7
0.76
17
0.71
8
0.76
18
0.70
9
0.76
6 The table below shows the percentage of people who can read (literacy rate) and the gross
domestic product (GDP) for a selection of 14 countries.
a Construct a scatterplot showing the
relationship between literacy rate
and GDP, and comment on the form.
nd a regression model for the
relationship between literacy rate
and GDP for this group of countries.
Country
Botswana
Cambodia
Canada
Ethiopia
France
Georgia
Germany
Honduras
Japan
Liberia
Pakistan
Saudi Arabia
Switzerland
Syria
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Literary
rate (%)
72
35
97
24
99
99
99
73
99
40
35
62
99
64
Gross domestic
product/capita
2677
260
19904
122
18944
4500
17539
1030
19860
409
406
6651
22384
2436
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Data transformation
This means changing the scale on either the x- or y-axis. It

is performed when a residual plot shows that the
underlying relationship in a set of bivariate data is clearly
non-linear.
x2 or y2 transformation
The squared transformation stretches out the upper end of

the scale on an axis.
log x or log y transformation
The log transformation compresses the upper end of the

scale on an axis.
1
1
or transformation
x
y
Review
Key ideas and chapter summary
The reciprocal transformation compresses the upper end

of the scale on an axis to a greater extent than the log
transformation.
Residual plots
Residual plots are used to assess the effectiveness of each

data transformation.
Coefcient of determination (r2 )
The transformation that results in a linear relationship and

that has the highest value of the coefcient of
determination is considered to be the best transformation.
The circle of transformations
The circle of transformations provides guidance in

choosing the transformations that can be used to linearise
various types of scatterplots. See page 190.
Skills check
Having completed this chapter you should be able to:
1
1
recognise which of the x 2 , log x, , y 2 , log y or transformations might be used to
x
y
linearise a bivariate relationship
apply each of these transformations to a data set
use residual plots and the coefcient of determination, r 2 , to decide which
transformation gives the best model for the relationship
use the transformed variable as part of a regression analysis to give a model for the
relationship.
Multiple-choice questions
1 The missing data values, a and b, in the table are:
value
(value)2
log(value)
1
a
0
A a = 0, b = 0.5
D a = 1, b = 0.602
2
4
b
3
4
9
16
0.477 0.602
B a = 1, b = 0.5
E a = 1, b = 0.693
C a = 1, b = 0.301
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2 Select the statement that correctly completes the sentence:

The effect of a log transformation is to . . .
A stretch the high values in the data
B maintain the distance between values
C stretch the low values in the data
D compress the high values in the data
E reverse the order of the values in the data
3 The scatterplot opposite shows the
relationship between the number of weeks
each person has been on a diet program and
their weight loss in kilograms. A least
squares regression line has been tted
to the data.
14
12
Weight loss
Review
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10
8
6
4
2
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
Number of weeks on a diet
4.00
6
5
4
2.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
4.00 2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00

Residual
2 3 4 5 6 7
E
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
7
6
5
4
3
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Weight loss
4.00
Residual
Weight loss
Residual
The residual plot for this least squares line would look like:
2.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7
4 The relationship between two variables y and

x, as shown in the scatterplot, is non-linear.
In an attempt to transform the relationship to
linearity, a student would be advised to:
A leave out the rst four points
B use a y 2 transformation
C use a log y transformation
1
D use a transformation
y
E use a least squares regression line
y
5
4
3
2
1
0
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Which of the following sets of transformations

could possibly linearise this relationship?
1
1
A log y, , log x,
B y2, x 2
y
x
1
1
D log y, , x 2
C y 2 , log x,
y
x
E ax + b
5
4
3
2
Review
5 The relationship between two variables y and x, as shown in the scatterplot, is

non-linear.
199
1
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6 The relationship between two variables y and x, as shown in the scatterplot, is

non-linear.
y
Which of the following transformations is most
5
likely to linearise the relationship?
1
B a y 2 transformation 4
A a transformation
x
3
1
C a log y transformation D a transformation
y
2
E a log x transformation
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
7 The following data was collected for two related variables x and y.
x
y
1
7
2
8.6
3
8.9
4
8.8
5
9.9
6
9.7
7
10.4
8
10.5
The scatterplot indicates a non-linear

relationship. The data is linearised using a log x
transformation. A least squares line is then tted
to the transformed data. The equation of this
line is closest to:
A y = 7.52 + 0.37 log x
B y = 0.37 + 7.52 log x
C y = 1.71 + 0.25 log x
D y = 3.86 + 7.04 log x
E y = 7.04 + 3.86 log x
9
10.7
10
11.2
11
11.1
y
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
x
0
10
12
8 Brian has determined from a scatterplot of his data that the appropriate
transformations for his data are log x, 1/x and y 2 . After applying each of these
transformations to the data, he obtains the results shown below.
Model
y vs x
y vs log x
y vs 1/x
y 2 vs x
Residuals
Curved
Random
Random
Random
r2
79.6%
80.8%
81.9%
88.4%
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9780521740517c06.xml
CUAU031-EVANS
Review
200
October 22, 2011
12:58
Based on the information in the table, which transformation would you suggest
Brian use?
B a y 2 transformation
C a log x transformation
A an x 2 transformation
1
D a transformation
E no transformation
x
9 When investigating the relationship between the weight of the strawberries picked
from a strawberry patch, and the width of the patch, Suzie decides that an x 2
transformation is appropriate. After transforming the data, she ts a least squares
regression line to the data and determines that the intercept is 10 and the slope is 5.
Based on this information, the model that Suzie has tted to the data can be written
as:
B weight = 5 + 10 (width)2
A (weight)2 = 10 + 5 width
C weight = 10 + 5 (width)2
D (weight)2 = 10 + 5 (width)2
2
E (weight) = 5 + 10 width
10 Suppose that the model that describes the relationship between the hours spent
studying for an exam and the mark achieved can be modelled by the equation:
Mark = 20 + 40 log (Hours)
From this model, we would predict that a student who studies for 20 hours would
score a mark (to the nearest whole number) of:
A 80
B 78
C 180
D 72
E 140
Extended-response questions
1 Measurements of distance travelled in metres and time taken in seconds were made
on a falling body. The data are given in the table below.
Time
Distance
Time2
0
0
1
5.2
2
18.0
3
42.0
4
5
6
79.0 128.0 168.0
Construct a scatterplot of the data and comment on its form.

Determine the values of (Time)2 and complete the table.
Construct a scatterplot of Distance against (Time)2 .
Obtain a residual plot for the new model and comment on the linearity.
Determine the value of r 2 for the new model.
Write down the regression equation for the new model in terms of the variables
in the question.
g Use the regression equation to predict the distance travelled in seven seconds.
a
b
c
d
e
f
2 The data in the table below show the marks obtained by students on a test and the
amount of time they reported studying for the test:
Mark
62 74 79
Time (hours) 1.5 2.25 3.0
80
2.5
56
0.8
86
3.5
92 87 64
6.0 2.75 1.0
ISBN: 9781107655904
88
4.5
48
0.5
32
0.1
P1: FXS/ABE
P2: FXS
9780521740517c06.xml
CUAU031-EVANS
October 22, 2011
12:58
201
Review
a We want to predict a students mark from the time they reported studying for the
test. In this situation, which is the dependent variable and which is the
independent variable?
b Construct a scatterplot and comment on the relationship between test mark and
time spent studying in terms of direction, outliers, form and strength.
c i Fit a linear model to the data and record its equation. Interpret the slope in
terms of the problem at hand.
ii Calculate the coefcient of determination and interpret.
iii Construct a residual plot and use it to comment on the suitability of modelling
the relationship between Mark and Time spent studying with a straight line.
d Apply a log transformation to Time. Then:
i construct a scatterplot for the transformed data
ii nd the equation of the least squares regression line for the transformed data
iii use the equation to predict the mark obtained after 5 hours of study
iv calculate the coefcient of determination and interpret
v construct a residual plot and use it to comment on the linearity of the
transformed model
y = 31.9 0.015x
r2 = 0.662
40
0
60
0
80
0
10
00
12
00
14
00
16
00
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
Testosterone level
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
40
0
60
0
80
0
10
00
12
00
14
00
16
00
Residual
Testosterone
1305
1000
1175
1495
1060
800
1005
710
1150
605
690
700
625
610
450
Age at rst
conviction
11
12
13
14
15
16
16
17
18
20
21
23
24
27
30
Age
3 The following are the testosterone levels and the age at rst conviction for violent
and aggressive crimes collected on a sample of young male prisoners. It is believed
that the higher the testosterone level in a male prisoner, the earlier they are likely to
be convicted of a violent and aggressive crime. A correlation and regression
analysis is also given.
Testosterone level
ISBN: 9781107655904
P1: FXS/ABE
P2: FXS
9780521740517c06.xml
CUAU031-EVANS
Review
202
October 22, 2011
12:58
a What is the value of Pearsons correlation coefcient, r?

b Write the equation of the least squares regression line in terms of Testosterone
level and Age.
c Interpret the value of r 2 in terms of Testosterone level and Age.
d Use the residual plot to comment on the linearity of the relationship.
e Construct a scatterplot of Age against log (Testosterone).
f Obtain a residual plot for the new model and comment on the linearity.
g Determine the value of r 2 for the new model.
h Write down the regression equation for the new model in terms of the variables
in the question.
4 Are infant mortality rates in a country related to the number of doctors in a
country? The data below give infant mortality rates (deaths per 1000 births) and
doctor numbers (per 100 000 people) for 17 countries.
Infant mortality No. of doctors Infant mortality No. of doctors
12
192
15
270
13
222
85
9
12
154
20
357
14
294
21
250
10
182
54
79
10
179
75
59
7
204
121
27
10
271
71
52
111
61
a Construct a scatterplot of Infant mortality against Number of doctors and
comment on the relationship between infant mortality rate and doctor numbers
in terms of direction, outliers, form and strength.
b Construct a scatterplot of Infant mortality against log (Number of doctors).
c Obtain a residual plot for the new model and comment on the linearity.
d Determine the value of r 2 for the new model.
e Write down the regression equation for the new model in terms of the variables
in the question.
f Use the regression equation to predict the infant mortality rate when there are
100 doctors (per 100 000).
5 Tree ages can be determined by cutting down a tree and counting the number of
rings on the stump of its trunk. This, however, is a destructive process and it would
be useful to have a method of working out the approximate age of a tree without
having to cut it down. Noting the obvious, that trees tend to get bigger as they get
older, we might be able to use some external measurement of size to help us
estimate the age of a tree.
ISBN: 9781107655904
P1: FXS/ABE
P2: FXS
9780521740517c06.xml
CUAU031-EVANS
October 22, 2011
12:58
203
Review
The data below show the age (in years) and diameter at chest height (in cm) of a
sample of trees of the same species taken from a commercial plantation.
Age
(years)
4
5
8
8
8
10
10
12
13
14
Diameter
(centimetres)
2.0
2.0
2.5
5.1
7.5
5.1
8.9
12.4
9.0
6.4
Age
(years)
16
18
22
25
29
30
34
38
40
Diameter
(centimetres)
11.4
11.7
14.7
16.5
15.2
15.2
17.8
17.8
19.1
a We wish to predict the age of a tree from its diameter at chest height. In this
situation, which is the dependent variable and which is the independent variable?
b Construct a scatterplot and comment on the relationship between age and
diameter in terms of direction, outliers, form and strength.
c i Fit a linear model to the data and record its equation. Interpret the slope in
terms of the problem at hand.
ii Calculate the coefcient of determination and interpret.
iii Form a residual plot and use it to comment on the suitability of modelling the
relationship between age and diameter with a straight line.
d Use the x 2 transformation to linearise the data. Then:
i construct a scatterplot of age against diameter squared
ii nd the equation of the least squares regression line for the transformed data
iii calculate the coefcient of determination and interpret
iv form a residual plot and use it to comment on the suitability of modelling the
relationship between age and diameter squared with a straight line
6 The table below shows the performance level recorded by a number of people on
completion of a task, along with the time spent (in minutes) in practising the task.
Time spent on practice
Level of performance
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
2.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
3.5
5.0
4.0
6.0
3.5
7.0
3.9
7.0
3.6
a Construct a scatterplot showing the relationship between time spent on practice

and level of performance, and comment on the form. The IV is time.
b Apply a log transformation to the x values (log x), again plot the data and
comment on the form of the relationship between y and log x.
c Fit a line to the transformed data and write down its equation. Use the equation
to predict the expected level of performance (correct to one decimal place) for a
person who spends 2.5 minutes practising the task.
ISBN: 9781107655904

06 - Data Transformation

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P1: FXS/ABE

October 22, 2011

6.1 Data transformation

Cambridge University Press

October 22, 2011

Chapter 6 Data transformation

Cambridge University Press

October 22, 2011

Essential Further Mathematics Core

2 a Copy and complete the table.

Cambridge University Press

October 22, 2011

Chapter 6 Data transformation

Transforming the x-axis

Spreads out the high x values relative

Compresses large x values relative to

Also compresses large x values relative

Cambridge University Press

Essential Further Mathematics Core

The squared transformation

Linearising the relationship with a squared transformation

a Plot the data in the table, and comment on the

a 1 Plot the values of y against x.

3 Write down your conclusion.

The relationship between y and x is non-linear.

2 Plot the values of y against x 2 .

4 Write down your conclusion.

The relationship between y and x2 is linear.

c 1 Fit a straight line to the transformed data.

Cambridge University Press

Chapter 6 Data transformation

How to apply the squared transformation using the TI-Nspire CAS

Use an x 2 -transformation to linearise the data, then:

2 Select Add Lists & Spreadsheet.

4 Return to the Lists & Spreadsheet

Note: The dash in front of the x (i.e.  x)

is automatically added when a list name is

Cambridge University Press

Essential Further Mathematics Core

5 Construct a scatterplot of y against x 2 .

7 Write down the equation for y in terms

How to apply the squared transformation using the ClassPad

Use an x 2 -transformation to linearise the data, then:

Cambridge University Press

Chapter 6 Data transformation

5 Fit a line to the transformed data

Cambridge University Press

October 22, 2011

Essential Further Mathematics Core

The log transformation

Cambridge University Press

Chapter 6 Data transformation

b Return to the Lists & Spreadsheet

Note: If your answers are not given as

3 Construct a scatterplot of y against

Cambridge University Press

Essential Further Mathematics Core

Eqn: y = 0.01 + 9.92 log X

d Write down the equation for y in terms

How to apply the log transformation using the ClassPad

Cambridge University Press

Chapter 6 Data transformation

b To calculate the values of

Note: To ensure decimal values are displayed,

Note: The dash in front of the x (i.e. x)