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Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A:

Applications: An International Journal of
Computation and Methodology
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The FEM-Modeling of the Frictional

Heating Phenomenon in the Pad/Disc
Tribosystem (A Review)
a

A. A. Yevtushenko & P. Grzes

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering , Bialystok University of

Technology (BUT) , Bialystok, Poland
Published online: 23 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: A. A. Yevtushenko & P. Grzes (2010) The FEM-Modeling of the Frictional
Heating Phenomenon in the Pad/Disc Tribosystem (A Review), Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A:
Applications: An International Journal of Computation and Methodology, 58:3, 207-226, DOI:
10.1080/10407782.2010.497312
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10407782.2010.497312

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Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A, 58: 207226, 2010

Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1040-7782 print=1521-0634 online
DOI: 10.1080/10407782.2010.497312

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THE FEM-MODELING OF THE FRICTIONAL HEATING

PHENOMENON IN THE PAD/DISC TRIBOSYSTEM
(A REVIEW)
A. A. Yevtushenko and P. Grzes
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bialystok University of Technology
(BUT), Bialystok, Poland
This article is concerned with frictional heating phenomenon playing a central role in disc
brake (clutch) systems performance. It was of great interest to carry the description of
existing numerical solutions of the problem. The level of the calculations was categorized
into three problems. The rst is a common approach, drawn primarily on the assumption
that the heat ow rate generated at the disc/pad interface is a known quantity. Heat generation was substituted by the intensity of heat ux depending on contact pressure, coefcient of friction and evolution of angular velocity, and radius of the disc product. A
more complex description of the braking action was given by the assumption of mutual
relation between mating parts of the disc brake system. In this case, the thermoelasticity
theory was applied to the model. The facts of existing critical speed is established, in which
hot spots caused mainly by contact pressure variations frictionally-excited thermoelastic
instability phenomenon entered commonly into consideration.

1. INTRODUCTION
Disc brakes are apparatus used to stop, decelerate, or to enable the motion of a
vehicle. The increase of friction moment is limited by the diameter of contact surface,
coefcient of friction, pressure per unit area, and cover angle of pad. Nevertheless,
the peak temperature value is one of the most crucial factors of the braking process.
When the braking process occurs, the kinetic energy is converted into heat energy
and parameters of the process (velocity, contact pressure, coefcient of friction,
and thermophysical properties of materials) vary with time. The operation of the
temperature above a certain critical value may cause undesirable effects such as
brake fade, low frequency vibrations, thermal cracks, and premature wear. Prediction of temperature distribution during the braking process can be obtained by using
experimental tests or theoretical calculations. Reliable outcomes of the experimental
investigations are the validation of numerical solutions. However, special effort to
perform identical conditions of the operation is required. An accuracy of determining peak value of temperature at the initial stage of the design process of a specied
Received 9 April 2010; accepted 12 May 2010.
Address correspondence to A. A. Yevtushenko, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical
University of Bialystok (BTU), 45C Wiejska Street, Bialystok 15-351, Poland. E-mail: a.yevtushenko@
pb.edu.pl

207

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A. A. YEVTUSHENKO AND P. GRZES

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NOMENCLATURE
c
[CT]
[D]
d
f
h
k
K
[K]
[KHT]
p
{Pf}
{Ps}
{PDT}
q
q0
r
{R}
~g
fR
t
ts
T
T

specic heat, J=kgK

capacity matrix
elasticity matrix
dimension, m
coefcient of friction
heat transfer coefcient, W=m2K
thermal diffusivity, m2=s
thermal conductivity, W=mK
stiffness matrix
conductivity matrix
contact pressure, MPa
body force vector
surface traction vector
thermal load vector
intensity of heat ux, W=m2
initial intensity of heat ux, W=m2
radial coordinate, m
heat source vector
Fourier integral transform of heat source
vector with respect to the h coordinate
time, s
braking time, s
temperature,
C
temperature at the initial moment of
time,
C

T1
{T}
~g
fT

u
{U}
V
z
{a}
c
{e}
{e0}
h
q
r
{r}
rz
x

ambient temperature,
C
temperature vector
Fourier integral transform of
temperature vector with respect to the
h coordinate
displacement, m
vector of nodal displacements
linear velocity at any instant, m=s
axial coordinate, m
thermal expansion coefcient vector
heat partition ratio
strain vector
initial strain vector
circumferential coordinate, rad
density, kg=m3
stress, MPa
stress vector
normal stresses on the disc=pad
interface, MPa
angular velocity, 1=s

Indexes
z
z coordinate
d
disc
p
pad

brake system facilitates to avoid unwanted shortcoming. Analytical calculations

considering frictional heating systems require semi-spaces or plane parallel strip
and therefore, application of a nite region is unfeasible. Hence, it is extremely difcult to obtain an exact solution of the problem, which is an impact of complex
geometry of the disc brake system. Reviews of analytical methods of the solution
of thermal problems of friction during braking are given in the monographs [13]
and in articles [4, 5]. Owing this, the use of the nite-element method (FEM) has

Figure 1. Feedback process for thermoelastic instability phenomenon [54].

FRICTIONAL HEATING IN THE PAD/DISC TRIBOSYSTEM

209

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made a signicant contribution to the area of the heat dissipation problem in disc
brakes or dry=wet clutches. However, it must be noted that in the analytical or
numerical approximation of the problem, simplication of the process may falsify
the results and a cautious conclusion is necessary.
In this article, the review of FEM applications of frictional heating phenomenon concerning disc brakes and clutches systems is presented. The aim was to
compare different techniques of temperature estimation developed up to now with
reference to two- and three-dimensional representation of the models. Thermal
analysis, thermoelasticity contact problem, and frictionally-excited thermoelastic
instability (TEI) phenomenon were illustrated individually.

2. HEAT CONDUCTION PROBLEM

The work done during the braking process or after clutch engagement
produces heat energy due to the rate of deceleration. Estimation of temperature
distribution in the operation may provide an important information of the mutual
relationship between friction, wear, and temperature.
The temperature elds and the thermal stresses in the discs of a multi-disc wet
clutch after engagement were investigated by Zagrodzki [6]. An assumption was
made that the interface conditions are independent of the temperature. Thermal
and mechanical phenomenon in each disc were stated to be symmetric in reference
to the discs midplanes. The contact pressure was uniformly distributed over the
rubbing surfaces and established as independent of thermoelastic deformations of
friction materials [7]. The axisymmetric model due to the intensity of heat ux uniformly distributed in the circumference and an axial symmetry of friction material
was proposed. An assumption was made that the intensity of heat ux distributed
into friction surfaces with respect to radial position of discs is a known quantity
equal to the specic power of friction [8].
qr; t fpxtr; 0  t  ts

The transient heat conduction boundary-value problem for parabolic equation,

q2 T 1 qT q2 T 1 qT
2

qr2
r qr
qz
k qt

was solved numerically using the nite-difference method. In order to obtain rst
order heat transfer differential equations, the standard Crank-Nicolson method
was employed [9]. The corresponding uncoupled quasi-static thermoelastic problem
was accomplished using FEM, where triangular cross-sectioned axisymmetric elements with appropriate division of grid have been used. Two various materials of
the disc were considered. The discs with a steel core, lined with sintered bronze used
as friction material layers were submitted to complex analysis, including thermal
stresses due to frequent service failure. The discs, entirely made of steel, were exclusively used in the heat conduction analysis.

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210

A. A. YEVTUSHENKO AND P. GRZES

Disc brakes are subjected to high thermal loads during emergency braking
action, drag braking, and repetitive cycles of operation. Multiple brake engagement,
especially, without a period of forced or natural cooling may evoke undesirable
effects between mating parts of the disc brake system. Variations of temperatures
above critical, acceptable value lead to thermal deformations, low frequency vibrations, uctuation of friction coefcient, and brake fade. Temperature distributions
during repeated brake cycle were determined by Ramachandra Rao et al. [10].
Material properties were assumed to be independent, on temperature. The starting
point of the analysis was the parabolic heat conduction equation (Eq. 2). The heat
partition ratio imposed division of heat entering the disc and pad, respectively,
and was given as follows [11].
p
Kp qp cp
c p p
Kp qp cp Kd qd cd

The amount of heat was calculated from the energy balance relation, where
total kinetic energy is assumed to be converted into heat. Prevailing heat was
attached to the disc material; thus, pad volume was neglected for the analysis.
Two cases of computations were developed using conventional methods of heat
input and the clock mechanism technique. In the conventional analysis, kinetic
energy was calculated at each time step resulting in temperature distribution in a disc
area. Additionally, two periods in terms of this calculations were distinguished: braking on with load of frictional heating and braking off time, where cooling by convection and radiation was assumed. In the second case of the analysis, braking action
was divided with reference to periodic pad activity. In the time of pad presence, heat
entered the disc. After, heating was switched off and cooling, due to convection, was
established. Hence, heating and cooling periods were included in braking action
opposite the rst step of the proposed conventional time stepping procedure. The
presented clock mechanism provides relatively detailed description of disc brake
operation in frictional heating terms. For validation purposes of the proposed
nite-element analysis, experimental tests were conducted. A sophisticated doubleended micro processor with rubbing type of thermocouple measured temperature
distributions. Tips of the thermocouples tted at both sides of the brake at mean
radius of the rubbing path.
The disc brake system is designed for determined operation conditions. In the
course of brake action, both the ability to conduct heat corresponding to thermal
diffusivity and specic heat capacity of the given material, and dimensions of the disc
brake with its special observation to mass advantages should be considered. Cast
iron disc brakes are widely used in passenger vehicles for numerous advantages,
including relatively low costs, ability to resist cracking, and its high thermal conductivity. However, drawbacks such as susceptibility to corrosion or weight features
related to lightweight metal matrix composites are noticeable. Grieve et al. [12]
compared the application of different materials, namely cast iron and aluminium,
in a front disc brake system of a typical small-medium passenger car. Thermal
nite-element analysis was developed as an efcient method in terms of peak temperature estimation using different materials where chemical composition, dimensions
of a brake system, and thermophysical and strength properties were distinguished. A

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FRICTIONAL HEATING IN THE PAD/DISC TRIBOSYSTEM

211

Taguchi technique [13] was applied to estimate major critical factors of suitable
design of lightweight components of automotive disc brake systems. Among different materials used in brake rotors, especially aluminium metal matrix composite
(Al-MMC), received attention. Three separate tests were conducted. First, a study
of vehicle mass in different simulation cases of brake operation, Alpine descent,
and emergency high-speed autobahn stop. Second, was to nd the most inuential
factors to be considered for the design of a prototype Al-MMC disc brake. Finally,
was detailed parametric study to examine the effect of the disc thickness and vents
width.
Finite-element analysis has proven to be one of the most efcient approaches
to solve the problem of frictional heating in sliding systems. Nevertheless disadvantages have presence considering the transient character of the braking problem. A
high Peclet number imposes irrational mesh division of the modeled parts of the system. As a result, large computer storage is indispensable. The complex procedure to
avoid the above shortcomings was proposed by Kennedy et al. [14]. The authors
extended a nite-element program developed earlier to handle transient cases and
temperature-dependent thermal properties of materials. A value of 0.5 or slightly
higher for a weight parameter of the Crank-Nicolson method previously recommended as relevant for maximum solution accuracy, was validated in this article.
The nite-element method for temperature assessment due to frictional heating
was taken into consideration for one- and two-dimensional objects. Revision of these
in order to avoid redundant perturbations was developed. An attempt to solve previously unsolved problems in heat generation of slipping bodies was made. Several
techniques of two-dimensional studies were examined by Carslaw [15], Heinrich
[16], Baliga [17], Finn [18], ONeill [19], Brooks [20], and Kanarachos [21].
The disc brake is subjected to nonaxisymmetric thermal load caused by rotational motion of the disc corresponding to xed pads. The exchange of large amounts
of kinetic energy into thermal energy imposes nonuniform temperature distribution,
which is rmly noticeable above a specic value of angular velocity of disc brake.
When the movable lining material exceeds a Peclet number of Pe 2, oscillations
may occur. However, for a detailed description of the heat generation phenomenon,
the disc brake model is susceptible to be considered in three-dimensionality. In the
course of spatial usage of the disc brake system, simplication methods have also been
employed to examine temperature elds variable in the circumference of the contact
surface. It is known that simplication of the intensity of heat ux assumed to be uniform in the circumferential direction for time shortage unfortunately yields to incorrect outcomes. The nite-element method (FEM) is very well adapted for xed parts,
but three-dimensional FE modeling necessitates a more exacting approach. For that
reason, Floquet and Duborg [22] proposed new method to attain three-dimensional
distribution of temperature with a moving heat source and pad inuence. A
three-dimensional model with transient nonaxisymmetric operation of the heat ux
due to variable velocity and spatial effects with signicant pad=disc interface conditions of thermoelastic behavior was developed. In order to obtain temperature distribution, fast Fourier transform technique (FFT) utilizing the nite-element method
with sufciently short computational time was applied. Three steps of the analysis
were conducted. First, was a focus on three-dimensional transient analysis with variable velocity effects. The second step included complex thermoelastic analysis with

212

A. A. YEVTUSHENKO AND P. GRZES

the presence of a pad. Eventually, the third step was comprised of a thermal crazing
investigation. The heat conduction equation was given as follows.

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q2 T 1 qT q2 T 1 q2 T
1 qT
qT

qr2
r qr
qz2 r2 qh2
kd qt
qh

Both convection and radiation were taken into account corresponding to the
heat transfer coefcient h, which remained constant during each time step. The heat
ux was constant in the radial direction, and variable versus the circumferential
coordinate and time. Authors concluded that FFT-FEM is 225 time faster than
the classical nite-element method using a fully three-dimensional model. Therefore,
FEM appeared unsuitable in the case under examination. In order to validate the
above technique, simple models with different boundary conditions comprising velocity variety and nonaxisymmetric effects of heat ux were tested. Validation cases
also had analytical solutions extracted.
Later [23], the same authors extended the FFT-FEM model [22] to determine
the temperature eld in a ventilated disc brake assembly, where geometry is spatially
periodic but nonaxisymmetric. A three-dimensional numerical method for the prediction of transient temperatures reached during realistic braking operations in a
ventilated disc brake assembly is presented in this article. This layered FFT-FEM
numerical method takes advantage of the high Peclet number skin effect to decouple
the moving boundary contact problem from the spatially periodic but nonaxisymmetric cooling associated with the vents. Validation tests focusing on the continuity
and the accuracy of the temperature variations at the interface between the FFTFEM and 3-D nite-element methods are presented for the layered FFT-FEM
method. Comparisons with analytical calculations show very good agreement. The
rst problem is modeled according to the FFT-FEM method developed previously
by the authors [22]. This technique succeeded in using high Peclet numbers for
axisymmetric moving solids submitted to general loading conditions. No numerical
convergence problems were encountered, and relatively short computer time was
required. The second problem is modeled according to a traditional threedimensional nite-element technique. The layered FFT-FEM results were compared
with the analytical solution. Different convection conditions on hub cap tracks,
vents, and elsewhere were established. It was assumed that the properties of materials vary with temperature. The disc was divided into three parts: two hub caps and
a central part.
A hybrid scheme that combines the fast Fourier transform technique and
nite-element method is an efcient method of solving an axisymmetric object subjected to nonaxisymmetric load [22, 23]. Although, inverse Fourier transform of the
problem ought to be used. Numerical solution at each frequency of time domain is
well adopted in thermal problems, whereas unfavorable features of this method are
noticeable in coupled thermoelastic analysis. The nonaxisymmetric arrangement of
the disc brake system in transient nite-element analysis was used by Gao and Lin
[24]. Nonlinear operation conditions, including rotating speed of a disc and
evolution of the contact pressure for more realistic simulation, were assumed.
Complex behavior of the frictional pair of a disc brake system necessitates
special observation of the experimental led. Qi and Day [25] carried out analysis

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FRICTIONAL HEATING IN THE PAD/DISC TRIBOSYSTEM

213

of temperature expansion phenomenon due to frictional heating in disc brakes. The

technique of the exposed thermocouple interface temperature measurement was used
in the investigation of the characteristics that inuence temperature rise in the
imposed conditions. The above procedure of the temperature distribution assessment
is an efcient method developed previously [26]. Additionally, convectional embedded thermocouple technique commonly used to examine disc temperature was
employed to confront system automatic control and failure diagnosis. For a simulation cause of the experimental results, the nite-element modeling technique was proposed as a relevant method of pad=disc interface temperature assessment. The
authors focused on phenomenon of the real and apparent area of contact between
two sliding bodies due to topography of the friction surface. An attempt was made
to determine the range of the affection on its performance, including temperature
growth and wear presence. Statistical design of experiments (DoE) was used in
detailed analysis of the characteristics in the braking process. A four-factor,
two-level full factorial orthogonal design was conducted. Two different frictional
materials were selected. New and used pads have been considered in the analysis.
The major outputs of the DoE were temperature and the coefcient of friction.
The heat transfer problem in a ventilated disc brake with straight radial
rounded vanes was investigated by Talati and Jalalifar [27]. Two models of frictional
heatingmacroscopic and microscopicwere examined. In the macroscopic model,
the rst law of thermodynamics was taken into account, and for the microscopic
model, various characteristics such as duration of braking, thermophysical properties of materials, and dimensions of a disc brake system have been studied. Both disc
and pad volume were investigated separately to evaluate temperature distributions.
The conduction heat transfer was investigated using FEM [27]. Two cases of contact
pressure distribution were considered: uniform pressure and uniform wear. Experimental correlations and numerical computation results [29] were used for the
description of the heat convection trough considered a type of SRV-R rotor. The
results of the numerical analysis were also veried by experimental investigations.
Problem of frictional heating in a solid disc brake assuming uniformity of the intensity of heat ux was solved analytically using Greens function approach by Talati
and Jalalifar [28].
3. THERMOELASTICITY
In order to gure out acceptable outcomes of a frictional heating problem,
both thermal and elastic problems should be considered. Typically, coupled analysis
of disc brakes and clutches aim to simulate deformation of contacting bodies caused
by high thermal loads. Nonuniformity of contact pressure distribution over the rubbing surface both in circumferential and radial direction is unavoidable. Such a
phenomenon may be evoked at the initial moment of the engagement action, owing
different characters of the piston and nger side of the caliper. Even if the initial dissimilarities between the pressure distributions are relatively insignicant, they may
unfortunately become noticeable when the thermal deformations appear.
The energy transformation during the braking process using FEM was studied
by Day and Newcomb [30]. Disc brake performance and temperature analysis have
been taken into account. Contact pressure and temperature distribution with respect

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214

A. A. YEVTUSHENKO AND P. GRZES

to wear increment was calculated. It was concluded, that wear debris generated
under braking conditions have a signicant effect upon heat transfer from the interface. However, several assumptions of real behavior of two sliding bodies in contact
have been neglected, including chemical reaction energy interchange. Contact pressure, temperature, and wear distributions obtained in the numerical analysis were
confronted with observed and measured experimental outcomes from an annular test
rig. The pressure was assumed to remain constant during braking. The intensity of
heat ux depended on the product of velocity and interface pressure at each
increment time of the transient analysis. The analysis of contact pressure was performed using the gap force method. Two parts of the friction pair were modeled separately. Connection between individual nite element of the friction interface was
developed by equal and nodal gap forces. The gap forces were calculated using a
method of deection coefcients in the iterative solution of the dynamic interface
pressure. In the normal direction, only compressive forces are enabled and frictional
forces are adapted in the tangential directions computed according to Amontons
law. The coefcient of friction was assumed to remain constant during analysis.
The annular disc has been modeled in a two-dimensional axisymmetric conguration. The contact conditions of the mating pair were determined at each time step
of the analysis by the amount of wear estimated from nodal temperature and pressure values [31]. The convective terms of heat transfer were assumed on the free surfaces of the model using a constant value of 100 W=(m2K) of the heat transfer
coefcient h derived from empirical correlations. The sum of the intensities of heat
uxes into the pad and the disc are given by the following formula.

qt q0


t
1
; 0  t  ts
ts

Assuming equal temperatures between surfaces in contact, the heat partition

factor c was obtained from Eq. (3). First approximation of the surface temperature
rise was obtained from the Fazekas [32] known formula.
p 

2q0 kp t
2t
p 1 
T t
; 0  t  ts
3ts
Kp p

and for longer periods of braking time, the following form of equation for steel disc
brake should be used





q0 k d
t
d2
t
d4
t 1
1
7
T t

; 0  t  ts
2ts
ts
Kd d
3kd
45kd 2 ts
This equation omits inuence of heat loss and any effect of interface contact
resistance.
Transient thermomechanical behavior of multidisc wet clutches and brakes to
answer the question if the assumptions concerning the uniform distribution of normal pressure is valid and when it is reasonable was examined by Zagrodzki [33]. The
phenomenon of wear in short periods of clutch (brake) engagement and=or lubricated environment is not able to vary signicantly contact conditions. Hence, the

FRICTIONAL HEATING IN THE PAD/DISC TRIBOSYSTEM

215

inuence of wear presence has been neglected. This study established simplication
of the model, which evokes axisymmetric elds of temperature distributions. Linear
heat conduction was prescribed in each subregion. Including iterative order of the
governing heat transfer Eq. (2) for the ith subregion was solved. The boundary conditions have been specied with respect to Newtons cooling law to sequential subq
regions. The heat ux qij in the contact region Sij was an unknown variable, and
is dened as follows.

qTi 
Ki
hT1  Ti jSh
i
qz Sq

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ij

where the heat transfer coefcient h varies including different fragments of the surface. It was essential to establish two additional conditions in the contact area. First,
was the condition of equality of temperatures.

Ti jSq Tj Sq
9
ij

ji

Second, was the law of the energy conservation.


Ti jSq  Tj Sq fpij t; rV
ij

10

ji

where pij is the contact pressure, depending on the radial coordinate r and on the
h
time t. On the free surfaces Si , the following conditions have been assumed.

qTi 
Ki
hT1  Ti jSh
11
i
qn Sh
i

At the initial moment of time, the temperature was equal.

Ti 0; r; z Ti0 r; z

12

In order to determine temperature distribution of this transient heat conduction problem, the ne mesh element was essential. Moreover, when the iterative
method of the given problem is employed, then a relatively short time is needed
for the calculations. The real regions of the piston and plate were substituted by rectangles, which facilitate adoption of the nite-difference method. In the next step of
the study, the Crank-Nicolson method was selected as an unconditionally stable
scheme. To solve the nite-difference equations, the Gauss-Seidel stationary iterative
method was used.
In the mechanical system it is assumed that each subregion is linearly elastic
and the elastic phenomena was considered as a static case. Two types of forces affect
system: the hydraulic pressure acting on pads and frictional stresses resulting from
the rotation of the disc. The axial component of displacements on the contact surface
was equal


uz;i Sq uz;j Sq
ij

ji

13

216

A. A. YEVTUSHENKO AND P. GRZES

at the condition that the normal stresses rz on the interface are compressive.
rz jSq pij < 0

14

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ij

Three levels of the disc brake thermal behavior can be distinguished; namely,
bulk, macro and micro [34,35]. At the beginning of the disc brake design process,
bulk examination is the most suitable and efcient method of temperature prediction
in terms of general thermal dissipation. However, macroscopic scale helps to determine more sophisticated effects including thermal effects, related specically to hot
spots, banding, and possible rotor surface damage. The railway disc brake system
with reference to thermal loads as a dominant in this type of brake systems study
was analyzed by Tirovic [36]. Ventilated disc brake area in the section of 7.5
at
the circumference containing half of the vane thickness and half of the disc area
between vanes was examined without pad presence. Such a simplication, was an
issue of generation appropriate results with relatively low time coast. The material
properties were assumed to be dependent on temperature. Plastic deformation have
been neglected. However, this study aimed to be preliminary to the subsequent
investigations addressing macro effects on the rubbing surface. Careful examination
by comparing the stress and temperature outcomes with the yield stress as a function
of temperature was referred to be essential in the course of the considered braking
process.
Powerful thermal loads upon repeated braking action with, high rate of deceleration may be revealed in areas of signicant plastic strain accumulation of disc
brake material. The thermomechanical behavior of a ventilated disc brake of a passenger car was examined by Koetniyom et al. [37]. For convenience,
temperature-dependent material properties excluding density were derived from
experimental investigations on samples cut from real cast iron disc. Special effort
was made in the application of yield properties of cast iron with distinction in tension
and compression state. The cyclic strain-stress response of the cast iron at different
values of temperature was examined. The authors introduced a back-vented high
carbon cast iron disc (air ow passes mainly from the inner side of the rotor)
developed by Rover Cars. This type of rotor was compared with the conventional
type, where thermal cracks were potentially more susceptible to occur. One sector
of the disc brake was analyzed, represented by a unique shape repeated in the circumference. Calculations of the heat ux amount was based on the energy transfer
considering both mass and initial velocity of the vehicle. Moreover, correction factors due to unequal distribution of the effort at the front and rear axle and the energy
loss due to aerodynamic drag on the vehicle were employed. Both convection and
radiation have been considered in the analysis. The heat transfer coefcient was
adopted from Grieve et al. [12].
Prediction of temperature rise is the main problem in the course of braking
operation, including material degradation such as wear, phase transformation, thermal cracks, etc. Disc brake systems in the aircraft application are subjected to sufciently high temperatures in the range of 7001500
C, due to extremely large
amounts of energy transformation in a relatively short time. Contravention of
these may affect adjacent elements of the brake system: the tire zone near the hot
spots, bearings, brake uid vaporization, hydraulic cylinder, and piston. Therefore,

FRICTIONAL HEATING IN THE PAD/DISC TRIBOSYSTEM

217

importance of temperature determination is indisputable. An aircraft landing gear

subassembly was examined by Wolejsza et al. [38]. The coupled thermomechanical
analysis of the wheel-brake assembly was developed. The authors used a multifaceted approach, both the numerical solutions of the continuity model by means
of differential equations and results from FEM analysis were obtained and compared. The heat generated due to friction in the analysis was given as follows.

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qr; t f tpr; trxt; 0  t  ts

15

The axisymmetric nite-element model was used to simulate the most important
physical phenomenon without overloading computational resources. Both free
convection and radiation at the outer surfaces of the assembly have been assumed.
The value of friction coefcient and angular velocity used in the analysis was derived
from experimental data.
The transient coupled thermomechanical analysis of disc brake using FFTFEM was performed by Cho and Ahn [39]. It was assumed that on the disc=pad
contact zone the intensity of heat ux is prescribed due to frictional heating. In
the region without frictional contact at the disc=pad interface side, the convection
boundary conditions took place. The outer side of the disc at the circuit was
insulated; whereas, at the hub area of the disc temperature was specied. Among
the variety of numerical techniques for solving of differential equation of parabolic
type (4), the fast Fourier transform was selected considering its advantages of
efciently less computational time related to standard FEM. The FFT technique
reduces three-dimensional partial differential equations into two-dimensional in
the periodic domain of the disc including circumferential variety. In order to eliminate the second order of the partial differential equation, a weak form of the
Galerkin-type technique was used. The matrix form of equation was obtained.

C T 

~g
dfT
~ g fR
~g
KHT fT
dt

16

The Crank-Nicolson method due to time integration of the differential

equations system (16) was adopted. It should be noted that the pad had to be
considered in a fully three-dimensional system. Hence, extracted Eq. (16) are
appropriate only for the disc. Pads were supposed to be analyzed excluding FFT
reduction.
The constitutive equation for an elastic solid under mechanical loading and
thermal expression has the following form.
frg Dfeg  fe0 g

17

The complex analysis of thermoelastic behavior as signicant in the estimation

of the disc brake or clutch temperature and pressure distribution was performed by
Zhaoa et al. [40]. In addition, the inuence of material properties has been analyzed.
An axisymmetric FE model including carbon-carbon composite materials in the
computations have been used. Both thermal and elastic problems were developed
in coupled analysis. A heat conduction equation for each body were extracted in

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A. A. YEVTUSHENKO AND P. GRZES

the cylindrical coordinate system. Using Galerkins approach, the governing heat
conduction equation was described in the following matrix form.

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CT 

dfTg
KHT fTg fRg
dt

18

The solution of the rst order differential Eq. (18) was obtained using the most
common Crank-Nicolson method with a weight parameter, which ranges from 0.5 to
1, and was chosen from the conditions of achievement of necessary accuracy of integration and stable scheme.
In order to obtain the equation of equilibrium for coupled analysis including
the thermal and elastic problems, the variational principle was used. The thermoelastic equations have the following matrix form.
KfUg fPf g fPr g fPDT g

19

Complex phenomenon of thermomechanical behavior in disc brakes by using

three-dimensional macrostructural model in nite-element analysis was developed
by Dufrenoy [41]. The distributions of the temperature as a main problem in thermal
expansion analysis was determined. The tribological actions such as wear, distortions, and coefcient of friction variations were considered. The highly transient
nature of the problem was taken into account:
. Speed decreased linearly
. Thermal and mechanical material properties of the disc and pad varied with
temperature
. Value of thermal resistance was indirectly found from special experiment measurements and varied during analysis procedure
. Convection and radiation heat transfer on free surfaces took place
The temperature distribution in the disc and pads were calculated separately.
The disc has been made of 28CrMoV5 08 steel manufactured by a forging process.
The pad material was sintered Fe-CuSn metal matrix composite reinforced by
ceramic particles. Numerical and experimental results were compared. For this
purpose, the thermocouple and thermographs techniques were employed.
Assuming a wide variety of operating characteristics and geometrical dimensions of two bodies in sliding contact, the temperature of the interface and contact
pressure becomes the most important factors of its performance. The complex
nature of the frictional systems behavior imposes special concern of mutual
interaction of thermomechanical behavior. This is achieved by using optimization
(multilevel coordinate searchMCS) and two level ordinary design of experiments
(DoE) [42]. In the physical model, a global approach was made in order to assess
the general inuence of heat generation in sliding systems (drum brakes, disc
brakes, clutches) instead of limitation to its specic type and dimensions. In this
article, a rectangular block sliding over rigid support represents the friction
material. The support was established to be rigid and thermally conductive. Separation of heat ux on the surface friction was governed by a heat partitioning

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219

factor. It was assumed that the coefcient of friction and the coefcient of wear in
Archards law depends on temperature. The wide ranges of the material properties,
such as Youngs modulus, coefcient of friction, thermal expansion, specic heat,
thermal conductivity, wear coefcient, and length and thickness of sliding block
have been investigated. Global optimization was conducted corresponding to maximum temperature during 5 s time of sliding with speed of 10 ms1 and at 10 kN
force presses on the top surface of block. The task was to nd the optimum value
of the design parameters, and a low temperature was desirable. The FE model of
the sliding process consisted of 595 four-node rectangular bilinear elements. A
trapezoidal integration method was used for the contact elements conditions.
A detailed description to predict frictional materials wear was presented by
AbuBakar and Ouyang [43]. Both experimental and numerical investigations were
performed. Disc brake assembly was employed in the experiment to estimate contact
pressure distribution, essential to subsequent wear prediction. Three stages of different durations of the braking process were executed under a brake pressure of 1 MPa
and at a rotational speed of 6 s1. The stages lasted 10, 10, and 60 minutes, respectively. At the end of each stage, a contact test of 2.5 MPa in stationary conditions was
developed. Results were compared with FEA. A three-dimensional detailed FE
model consisted of a disc, a nger, piston pads, a caliper, a carrier, two bolts, and
two guide pins. Linear gauge and node mapping in the experiment in order to determine node positions from FE model was used. Fixed boundary conditions at the bolt
holes of the disc were imposed. Rhhes [44] formula of nonlinear wear was adapted
and modied to facilitate numerical computations. The surface contact topography
or surface roughness due to wear and its inuence on the brake squeal was estimated.
Results obtained in the previous analysis enables to develop brake squeal test. From
the two typical types of the squeal noise prediction, transient dynamic analysis and
complex eigenvalue analysis; the latter because of its advantages was selected. The
following assumptions were conceived;
Nonlinear static analysis for applying brake-line pressure
Nonlinear static analysis to impose rotation of the disc
Normal mode analysis to extract natural frequencies and modes of undamped
system
Complex eigenvalue analysis that incorporates the effect of contact stiffness and
friction coupling
It is established that there is an unstable frequency of 4.2 kHz with positive real
parts towards the end of braking, and it is obtained in the third stage of simulation.
These numerical results agree well with the experiments, where an unstable frequency
equals 4 kHz.
Reibenschuh [45] investigated 1=12th part of the unused (brand new) disc
brake and one with symptoms of wear within two major simulation types of the
braking process (descent driving and braking to a standstill). A ventilated type of
the rotor was considered. In order to evaluate deformation, stress and temperature
distribution of the load during braking was divided into three groups: centrifugal
load at a constant temperature, centrifugal and thermal loads combined during
mountain descent action, and centrifugal and thermal loads combined during

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A. A. YEVTUSHENKO AND P. GRZES

braking downhill to a permanent stop. The amount of heat ux was calculated from
the known relation of energy balance in an individual case of the analysis.

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4. THERMOELASTIC INSTABILITY
Sliding systems such as disc brakes and clutches inherently produce a signicant amount of heat due to a rotating motion of the disc against frictional material.
The location of pressure and temperature distribution in the circumference of
friction surfaces above critical value of the speed cause hot spots to appear [4648].
Therefore, deformations of the rotor material may be the consequences. This
phenomenon is known as frictionally excited thermoelastic instability TEI. It is crucial to predict the safety range of the operation of considering a sliding system. In the
study in reference [49], the sinusoidal perturbation method of the stability of contact
between two half-planes with single interface was used. Lee and Barber [50] extended
this method to the case of a layer between two half-planes. The problem was
developed in two-dimensionality with perturbations in the stress and temperature
elds which grow exponentially with time. The authors aimed to examine the discrepancy of the solutions where the critical speed wasnt found to agree well with
the practical solutions of the problem. The symmetric and antisymmetric approaches
about the midplane of the layer was used to investigate whether the unstable perturbations will exhibit the same symmetry. In the study, the disc-represented model
owing nite thickness with its typical material properties. Pads were considered as
half-planes which acted upon the disc with uniform pressure. Accuracy was an
impact of thermal conductivity of the pad material and therefore errors are supposed
to be satisfactorily low. However, a slight migration process of the perturbations of
the friction material performs an important part due to the reduction of thermal
expansion caused by perturbations in heat input and, hence, magnies critical speed.
The seminal Lee and Barbers [50] article based on Burton et al.s [49] sinusoidal
perturbation method of the stability of contact between two half-planes, laid the
foundation for subsequent investigations of frictionally excited thermoelastic instability phenomenon.
Yi et al. [51] explored the effect of geometry for TEI phenomenon based on Du
et al.s model [52]. Burtons perturbation method was employed to examine the stability of contact. It was assumed that the dominant perturbation has a real growth
rate. Only one element of the sliding system was established to conduct heat. This
fact led to the solution where the most general perturbation was independent of
the coordinate of sliding direction. Yi et al. [51] modied Dus method by using
Fourier decomposition to the case of the eigenvalue problem.
High efciency of the nite-element analysis of linear perturbations on the
constant speed of solution was proven by Yi et al. [53, 54]. The analysis of the thermomechanical feedback process due to frictional heating in a disc brake system was
performed by Yi et al. [53]. The FFT technique was employed in order to calculate
the exponential growth rate for different hot spot numbers and critical speed. The
feedback process was described as follows.
The above scheme is commonly used in the process responsible for the thermoelastic instability mechanism in sliding systems. The authors associated the number
of hot spots with the critical value Vcr of the sliding speed. However, it was affected

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by the shape of the disc brake. The temperature measurements of the noisy brakes
indicated nonuniform distributions in the circumferential direction. The unstable
interaction between thermoelastic distortion and heat generation revealed approximately regular expansion of the hot spots in the circumference of the surface in contact. For the validation purposes of the numerical scheme of the thermoelastic
solution, experimental investigations were developed. Results shows that for each
brake system tested in this case, hot spots were explicitly able to be identied, particularly when the sliding speed was relatively high. Theoretical predictions for all
wavenumber of critical speed agree well with experimental estimations. It was concluded that the FEM enables to predict critical speed for TEI phenomenon in disc
brakes, and simplies alterations of the preliminary design process.
In aiming lubricant environments, such as clutches, simplications were considered neglecting the effect of uid layer in most of the solutions of thermoelastic
instability phenomenon. However, experimental tests validated the proposed scheme
for dry discs or clutches with sufcient accuracy [53].
Numerous studies have thus far focused on determining the critical speed of
thermoelastic instability phenomenon in clutches or brakes systems towards exploration of the unstable behavior which, was an impact of typical applications, where
critical speed is commonly exceeded [5557].
The complex analysis of thermoelastic behavior, including TEI phenomenon,
as being signicant in the investigation of the disc brake temperature and pressure
distribution has been executed by Choi and Lee [58, 59]. In addition, the inuence
of the material properties on the TEI has been analyzed. Based on numerical results,
the carboncarbon materials with expected excellent characteristics were compared.
The thermoelastic instability phenomenon of the mine winder disc brake was
studied by Scieszka and Zolnierz [60, 61]. A wide variety of the parameters used
in numerical analysis were adopted from numerous examinations comprising infrared mapping. The computations were conrmed in the experimental investigations.
The value of the kinetic and static coefcient of friction at any instant of time related
to the temperature were approximately conducted from the tribological characteristic of the friction couple. It was of great interest to elaborate the FE model with
adequate boundary and operation conditions during the braking process. Taking
into account, various mechanical, material, and parameters describing efciency of
the braking system, the inuence of special characteristics of the mine winder have
been analyzed utilizing a critical value term related to axial distortions of the rotor
[62]. An attempt was made to determine a stable range of the operation. In the infrared mapping investigation of the mine winder disc brake the AGEMA 880LWB
equipped with a special lens was used. In order to overcome unreasonable niteelement division, a hybrid method with the fast Fourier transform technique was
employed [63]. It was concluded, that a major inuence on the critical speed value
has the coefcient of thermal diffusivity of the disc and Youngs modulus related
to the thickness of the disc.
The nite-element method for the foregoing implementations imposes
irrational timeintensive computations due to the complexity of the problem. Li
and Barber [64] used the fast speed expansion method for transient solution of the
thermoelastic contact problem as an alternative, and relied on the statement of the
temperature and stress elds as modal expansion. A specied number of critical

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A. A. YEVTUSHENKO AND P. GRZES

speed with important interpolation process were used to achieve more efcient calculations of eigenvalue analysis. Convergence tests were developed and presented
by an exemplar of a multidisc clutch.
Yi [65] emphasized an importance considering TEI with association to inertial
terms. Investigation of structural vibration almost always omits the fact of thermal
effect occurrence, and TEI studies disregard dynamic instabilities associated with
high frequency oscillations. Yi adapted Affrenate et al.s [66] model to investigate
a signicant effect of coupling thermoelastic and dynamic instabilities, referred to
as thermoelastodynamic instability (TEDI). Results obtained in the analysis, showed
that some modes perpetually grow beneath the critical value of sliding speed.
Zagrodzki [67] made a distinction of the thermoelastic process: the background process of the contact pressure results from the external loads and the perturbed process is a result of the initial condition. The background process does not
affect the stability of the linear systems hence, it has an absence in many studies
[50, 53, 68]. A similar approach was executed in transient analysis in references
[69, 70], where the background process wasnt taken into consideration. The mechanism of exciting unstable modes was examined by Zagrodzki and Zhao [71] in the
case of a wet multidisc clutch considering different geometry of an external load,
socalled nger piston. The hot spotting problem using simulations and experimental tests was identied.
5. CONCLUSION
The FEM solutions of the heat conduction and thermoelastic contact problem
of disc brake (clutch) systems in the course of temperature estimation give acceptable
results compared to the outcomes derived from experimental tests. However,
different approaches of modeling of the heat generation problem impose specied
difculties of inference.
The heat partitioning factor used in thermal analysis plays a central role
depending on the particular selection among a wide variety of formulas, which
may differ markedly. It stems from the fact that division of, heat entering the disc
and pad, respectively, is a result that depends on interface conditions, while in the
computations it is an articial partitioning factor of heat ux assumed a priori at
the beginning of the simulation of the braking process.
A hybrid method combining fast Fourier transform and the nite-element
method help to determine complete temperature distribution within the circumference of the disc brake using two-dimensional models. The coupling of these techniques save time in calculations upon conventional nite-element analysis with
nonaxisymmetric thermal loads. However, investigations considering the moving
heat source place an emphasis on the importance of resultant fatigue stresses and
thermal cracking phenomenon; the thermoelastic contact problem of friction pair
using FFT-FEM is unfavorable to solve.
An extensive body of literature of frictional heating phenomenon provides a
wide variety of model description complying with physical and mathematical
characters. Nonetheless, the lack of the thermoelastic contact problem with its fully
transient behavior, including temperature the dependent material properties and
coefcient of friction is noticeable.

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Prediction of wear during analysis of temperature distribution is essential only

in terms of relatively long repetitive braking application, mainly in thermoelastic
analysis; whereas, contact conditions are strongly dependent on the topography of
rubbing surfaces and may rmly affect obtained results.
Signicant trends aiming at a detailed investigation of the frictionally excited
thermoelastic instability problem are perceptible. So far, satisfactorily described
stable behavior with the conventional perturbation approach is gradually extended
to the case of instability referenced to its practical use in the disc brakes and clutch
systems operating above critical speed.
The FEM apparatus has proven to be a powerful instrument in the use of
frictional heating phenomenon modeling, helping to overcome analytical solutions
limited to semi-spaces or plane parallel strip.

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