Qualitative Research Methods

Content Analysis

Content Analysis
Involves studying previously recorded or reported
communication and systematically and objectively breaking it
up into more manageable units that are related to the topic
under a study.
Letters, Diaries, minutes of meetings, audio & video
recordings etc could be content-analysed.
Content Analysis is a Primary data collection technique NOT
a Secondary data.
Some researchers classify it under Observation Methods.

Steps involved
The first step is defining U, or the Universe of Content.
U indicates the assumptions or hypotheses that researchers
formulates.
The Universe of Content can be reported in 5 different formats
- words, theme, characters, space & time measures and item.

Formats of reporting U
1) Word
The smallest reported unit of U
Useful as it can be easily subjected to a computer analysis.
Content and Frequencies are calculated to arrive at certain
conclusions.
2) Theme
Based on theme.
For ex: disrespect towards elders is the theme
Representative: my old man (father) has gone senile and
needs to be sent to the looney bin for expecting me to become
a space scientist, just because he could not become one

Formats of reporting U (cont..)

3) Characters
Refers to the person producing the communication.
4) Space and Time
Related to the physical format i.e., the number of pages used,
the length of the communication and the duration of the
communication.
5) Item
This is more Gestaltian in nature.
Refers to categorizing the entire communication as say
responsible and respectful or aggressive and amoral

Measuring the percentage of

agreement between the two analyses
K = [Pr(a) Pr(e)] / [1 Pr(e)]

Where, K Kappa
Pr(a) relative observed agreement between the two raters
Pr(e) probability due to chance

If, K=1 two raters are in complete agreement

K=0 there is no agreement
K=0.21-0.40 agreement is fair
K=0.41-0.80 agreement is good
K=0.81-1.00 agreement is excellent

Conclusion
This is a very useful technique when one has a large quantity of
text in order to arrive at some definite conclusions.
This technique is applied extensively to all kinds of media:
newspapers, magazines, television, movies, and the Internet.
Intelligence and law enforcement agencies also do content
analysis regularly on diplomatic channels of communication,
overseas phone calls, and Internet emails.
Limitation - Content Analysis becomes tedious and prone to error
if handled by humans.
So Computer assistance is greatly required in the usage of this
technique. Various softwares that assist in Content Analysis
TEXTPACK, Verbastat, Statpac etc.,

Sociometric Analysis

Sociometric Analysis
This is a technique that has the group rather the individual as
its analysis.
Sociometry involves measuring the choice, communications
and interpersonal relations of people in different groups.
Computations based on these choices indicate the social
attraction & avoidance in the group.

Sociometric Analysis (cont..)

Sociometric questions:
In the group with whom would you like to work/interact
socially with?
Out of the following (list of acquaintances) whom would
you find as acceptable neighbors on either side of your
home?
The data obtained can be subjected to analysis
- Sociometric matrices
- Sociometric Indices

Sociometric matrices
For example To a six member group, we ask a Sociometric question, from
the group indicate two people would you like to take in your
project team
Vinay Shoba

Rahim

Pooja

Raju Sandy

Vinay

Shoba

Rahim

Pooja

Raju

Sandy

Sum

Sociometric matrices (cont..)

A selection is marked 1, otherwise person gets a score 0.
Summation indicates the number of times the person was
chosen by his friends/colleagues.
Interpretation of matrix is done in
1) Macro level analysis
- Add up the score and asses the popularity of each person
2) Micro level analysis
Sociogram
- One-way arrow one-way choice
- Two-way arrow two way choice

Example for a Sociogram

Sociometric indices
Based on the matrix drawn and indicates choices we can
obtain
1) Choice status of person how popular he/she is
2) Cohesion in the group
Choice status of person of the person can be measured by
Group Cohesiveness is given by
Unlimited Choice
Limited Choice

Conclusion
This technique is useful in evaluating informal channels of
communication an organization.
This can be used effectively to measure the social and
organizational prejudices that people might have.
Limitations - do not have a widespread applicability and can
be used for limited group.
This is only a indicative of personal choice not of actual
choice. The person who is selected as the most popular might
not be chosen because of his/her personal traits but on the
basis of perceived benefits/power the person might have.

Thank You