JBL 132, no.

4 (2013): 865-882

Y h w h s

Hand and the Iconography of the

Blow in Psalm 81:14-16
JOEL M.

jm lem on@ em ory.edu

Candler School o f Theology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322
University o f Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa

?salm 81 contains a divine oracle in w hich Y h w h prom ises to act against Israels
enem ies. The nature o f that activity, however, is unclear, particularly as V 15b
describes i t : . H ow does the verbal actionostensibly som e
sort o f turning ( ^ ) relate to the verbal object o f the sentence, (m y
hand), as well as the prepositional phrase beginning with ? O n the basis o f
evidence from the im m ediate literary context as well as iconographie data from
the ancient Near East, this essay argues for a translation 1 will rear back m y hand
above their foes. The text thus provides a literary instantiation o f the iconographic trope o f the Egyptian king lifting his hand m enacingly above his subjugated enem ies. As such, it reflects both a borrowing and a bold reappropriation
o f Egyptian imagery. The allusion to the iconography o f the blow rem inds the
com m unity that Y h w h has supplanted the pharaoh in his position o f dom inance
and now stands ready to vanquish any other foe w ho m ight oppose them.

L Th e O b sc u r e M o vem ent

of

h w h s H a n d

Following call to praise God in its opening verses (2-6), Fsalm 81 contains
a divine oracle in which Y h w h recounts Israels salvation front bondage in Egypt
and the testing in the wilderness (w . 7 -1 7 ). The oracle culminates with a double
promise: if Israel would listen and be obedient (v. 14), Y h w h would act decisively
against its enemies (w . 15-16) and provide sustenance (v. 17). w h ile the general
Many thanks go to several individuals who provided comments and suggestions on earlier
drafts o f this paper: Brian DiPalma, Brent A. Strawn, Izaak
de Hulster, and Christopher B.
Hays.
For the use o f prophetic oracle in this psalm, see Thijs Booij, The Background of the
Oracle in Psalm 81, Bib 65 (1984): 466-75.

865

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Journal ofBiblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

sense 0 the text Is clear enough, the nature ofYHWHs promised action against
Israels enemies Is markedly less clear, particularly as . 15b describes it:
. The interpretation of has proven critical for understanding the verse:
How does its verbal actionostensibly some sort of turning ()^relate to
the verbal object ofthe sentence,( myhand), as well as the prepositional phrase
beginning with ?
A long-standing interpretation reads ?s 81:15, I will then turn my hand
against their foes, or something closely akin to it (see KJV, NIV, NASB, ^ ^ .
This translation, also found in standard lexica such as HALOT, presumes that the
hiphtl of here conveys the act ofturning.^ Therefore, one can find little distinction between this use and the meaning o fth e same verb in the qal. While many
commentators, including Mitchell Dahood, Artur Weiser, Hans-Joachim Kraus,
John Goldingay, Marvin Tate, and Frank-Lothar Hossfeld adopt this translation,
few have expanded (even briefly) on the phrase or acknowledged the difficulty of
understanding what exactly it means for one to turn ones hand.^
Since there are, o f course, many ways of and reasons for turning ones hand,
one wonders how the poet imagined the movement ofYHWHs hand in this context.
Is the hand turning from the Israelites and toward the enemies, as Franz Delitzch
and, later, David F.mannel have suggested?^ And if so, does the turning necessitate

2Ludwig Koehler, Walter Baumgartner, and Johan Jakob Stamm, The Hebrew and Aramaic
Lexicon ofthe o ld Testament (trans. and ed. under the supervision of M. E. j. Richardson; 2 vol.
study ed.; Leiden: Brill, 200i), 1433.
^Weiser reads turn my hand against their oppressors, but makes no comment on the
imagery employed here except to say that God confirms he is willing to help them against their
enemies (The Psalms: A Commentary [nans. Herbert Hartwell; OTL; ?hiladelphia: Westminster,
1962], 552, 556). Kraus reads turn my hand against their adversaries but likewise gives no
discussion the translation in his commentary (Psalms 60-150: A Commentary [trans. Hilton
Gswald; CC; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989], 146,152). Dahood reads and against their adversaries
turn my hand with no further explication (Psalms, vol. 2, 51-100 [AB 17; Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1968], 263,267). Goldingay reads against their foes 1 would turn my hand, but does
not elaborate on his translation (Psalms 42-89 [Baker Commentary on the Gld Testament
Wisdom and Fsalms; Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007], 546, 554-55); likewise Tate (Psalms
51-100 [WBC 20; Dallas: Word, 1990], 318). Hossfeld translates turn my hand against their
attackers and suggests in his commentary that the verse describes the lifting ofYahwehs hand
against the oppressors, with a conferral ofD eu t 32:41 (Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Psalms 2: A
Commentary Psalms 50-100 [trans. Linda M. Maloney; Hermeneia: Minneapolis: Fortress,
2005], 319-20,325). Yet Hossfeld provides no insight on how turning the hand can indicate the
activity o f lifting the hand. For a discussion o fth e option of lifting the hand, see section 11
below.
Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary the Psalms, vol. 5 o f Commentary the o ld Testament
(ed. Carl Friedrich Keil and Franz Delitzsch; trans. Francis Bolton; 1866-91; repr., Feabody, MA:
Hendrickson, 1996), 541, 547 (commentary). Delitzsch translates the verse Suddenly would 1
humble their enemies, and against their oppressors turn My hand (p. 541). With the translation
1 would . .. act against their oppressors, Emanuel suggests that the phrase indicates the process

c.

LeMon: Yh w h s Hand and the Iconography ofthe Blow

867

a negative outcome for those toward whom the hand is turned, as most presume?^
In fact, a hand often serves as the object of in the hiphil (Gen 38:29; I Kgs 13:4;
Josh 8:26; Lam 2:3,8; Ps 74:11; Ezek 18:8,17; 20:22). In most ofthese cases, the verb
suggests a drawing back of the hand as a means of ceasing activity or stopping
aggressive actions. In Josh 8:26, for example, Joshua does not drawback his hand
until all ofthe enemies have fallen. In this context, the act of drawing back (hiphil
of ) is the opposite of stretching out ( )the hand.6 Likewise, in Ps 74:11, the
psalmist questions why God would draw back his hand, that is, cease from acting
against the enemies, ^ e s e texts complicate the idea that the hiphil of in Ps
81:15 designates an aggressive action, given that in the other contexts the verb
indicates a cessation of activity or a pulling back of an outstretched hand.
Complicating matters further, the NJPS provides an alternate translation of
Ps 81:15, which interprets the phrase as signaling some sort of
repeated activity, rendering V 15 thus:
1 w ould 1 subdue their enem ies at once,
strike their foes again and again.

This translation reflects the sense of the phrase as ft occurs in Jer 6:9.7



Thus says Yhwh of hosts:
Let them glean thoroughly as a vine the rem nant o f Israel;
Bringing your hand back again like a grape-gatherer over its branches.8

In an interpretation that remains largely uncontested, one finds here the notion of
bringing back ones hand over the branches and/or passing ones hand through the
in which YHWH turns his hand from his people to those oppressing them (An Unrecognized
Voice: Intra-textual and Intertextual Perspectives on Psalm 81, HS 51 [2009]: 106).
5 See n. 3 above.
^On the iconographical background of this imagery, see Othmar Keel, Wirkmchtige
Siegeszeichen im Alten Testament: Ikonographische Studien zu Jos 8,18-26; Ex 17, 8-13; 2 Kn 13,
14-19 und 1 Kn 22, 11 (OBO 5; Fribourg: Universittsverlag; Gttingen; Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 1974), 11-82.
^See HALOT, 1443, s.v. Wilhelm Gesenius et al.. Hebrisches und aramisches HandWrterbuch ber das Alte Testament (17th ed.; Berlin: Springer, 1954), 811.
8My translation, which accords with most interpretations. See, e.g., Robert p. Carroll, The
Book o f Jeremiah: A Commentary (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986), 193; Jack. R. Lundbom,
Jeremiah 1-20: A Hew Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 21A; New York:
Doubleday, 1999), 421-22; William L. Holladay, Jeremiah I: A Commentary the Book ofthe
Prophet Jeremiah, Chapters 1-25 (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986), 213. For the difficulty
of rendering the MTs singular participle with the plural verb )in the first colon, see
Holladay, as well as John Bright, Jeremiah: Introduction, Translation, and Notes (AB 21; Garden
City N Y Doubleday, 1965), 44.

868

Journal ofBiblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

branches repeatedlyessentially the causative use of the hiphil with an additional

iterative sense.
The parallelism between the cola heavily informs the translation ofbp
in Jer 6:9. Since the thorough gleaning described in the first colon can be accomplished only through repeated movement ofthe hand, the second colon likely indicates a similar repetitive movement. It is essential to note at this point that only the
immediate literary context allows for the determination ofthe particular sense of
the hiphil of here. Without those contextual clues, it would be exceedingly difficult to establish the nature ofthe movement ofYHWHs hand in Jer 6:9.
Indeed, for any problematic word or phrase, while other occurrences in the
biblical corpus can provide helpful data, the immediate literary context serves as
the primary guide for apprehending its meaning. However, the NJ?S has imported
the repetitive sense o f from Jer 6:9 into Ps 81:15: strike their foes again
and again. In fact, most interpreters have not based foe translation of Ps 81:15
solely on Jer 6:9 instead, they have seemed to render the verse in accordance with
other occurrences ofthe phrase in Isa 1:25; Ezek 38:12; Amos 1:8; and
Zech 13:7. In these cases, H A L O T suggests turn or direct ones hand against someone, and most translations have adopted that sense for Ps 81:15 as well.9
The various translations o f this phrase in several contexts prompt one to ask
whether in fact ever achieves foe status of a firmly established idiom
with a consistent meaning. Already we see that Jer 6:9 argues against that idea. Thus,
the translation of in Ps 81:15 warrants further analysis.
The following provides such an analysis, focusing primarily on the immediate
literary context ofthe psalm as the first and most important datum for determining
meaning. I will also consider the historical context of the psalm, especially as
revealed through iconographical material, an important but heretofore underutilized source of data for illuminating this passage. After treating the phrase in the
context of Psalm 81 and in light of iconographie material, I will return briefly to
foe other instances of ( Isa 1:25 Ezek 38:12; Amos 1:8 and Zech 13:7)
to suggest what the phrase might signify in these passages beyond the cryptic turning ones hand against someone.
In terms of methodology, one could situate this study within the framework
of so-called iconographie approaches to biblical texts, as it builds on the important
works of Othmar Keel and foe Fribourg school.^ Keel and his colleagues have
argued forcefully and effectively over foe past thirtyyears that biblical scholars must
9HALOT, 1443, s. v. .
10A period of remarkabiy productive research from Keel, his students, and colleagues
centered at the University o f Fribourg in Switzerland began with the publication of his seminal
volume The Symbolism ofth e Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and the Book /
Psalms (trans. Timothy 1. Hallett; repr., Winona Lake, IN: Fisenbrauns, 1997; figs. 1, 3 ,4a-c, and
6 in fois article are used by permission from Eisenbrauns) first published as Die Weh der
altorientalischen Bildsymbolik und das Alte Testament: Am Beispiel der Psalmen (Zurich: Benziger,

LeMon: Yh w h s Hand and the Iconography ofthe Blow

869

take seriously the fact that the biblical text was composed and redacted within a
world of images. Therefore, analyzing a text in its fullest historical context means
attending carefully to the ways that foe Bibles literary imagery reflects and refracts
the larger imagistic world from which it emerged. One should note further that
such iconographie approaches are appearing with increasing frequency, especially
among ?salms scholars, even those not directly associated with foe Fribourg
school. The present work constitutes another example o f this trend.
1972). These scholars, whose work largely appeared In the series Orbis biblicus et Orientalls, have
come to be known as foe Fribourg school.
Keels interests originally focused on foe intersection o f ancient art and foe biblical text. See
esp. Othmar Keel, Jahwe-Visionen und Siegelkunst: Eine neue Deutung der Majesttsschilderungen
in / 6 , Es 4 0 ( SBS 84/85; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1977); idem, Vgel
als Boten: Studien zu Ps 68,12-14, Gen 12- 6 , Koh 10, 20 und dem Assenden Botenvgeln in
gypten (OBO 14; Fribourg: Universittsverlag; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977);
idem, Jahwes Entgegnung an Ijob: Eine Deutung Ijob 38-41 dem Hintergrund der zedgenssischen Bildkunst (FRLANT 1^1; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978).
The work of t he Fribourg school soon extended into penetrating studies of ancient Near
Eastern art as an end in itself, as well as studies ofthe history of religions to which the iconography
gives witness, f o e volumes are too numerous to include here, but for a representative example,
see Othmar Keel and Christoph Uehlinger, Gods, Goddesses, Images / in Ancient Israel
(trans. foom as H. Trapp; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998). See also foe four volumes of Studien zu
den Stempelsiegeln aus Palstina/Israel (OBO 67, 88, 100, 135; Fribourg: Universittsverlag;
Gttingen: Vandehoeck & Ruprecht, 1985-92), which Keel authored with Siliva Schroer (OBO
67, 1985), with Hildi Keel-Leu and Silvia Schroer (OBO 88,1989), with Menakhem Shuval and
Christoph Uehlinger (OBO 100,1990), and alone (OBO 135,1992). Two other significant multivolume works are in progress: Silvia Schroer and Othmar Keel, Die Ikonographie Palstinas/
Israels und der Alte Orient: Eine Religionsgeschichte in Bildern (4 vols.; Fribourg: Academic Fress,
2005-); Othmar Keel, Corpus der Stempelsiegeln aus Palstina/Israel (5 vols.; OBO Series Archaeologica; Fribourg: Academic Press; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck 8f Ruprecht, 1995-). Important
Internet-based resources for ancient Near Eastern iconography include the Bibel + Orient
Datenbank O nline (www.bible-orient-museum.ch/bodo/) and foe Iconography o f Deity and
Demons in the Ancient Near East: An Iconographie Dictionary with Special Emphasis on First
Millennium BCE Palestine/Israel (http://www.religionswissenschaft.uzh.ch/idd/).
^For a recent overview and evaluation ofth e role o f ancient Near Eastern iconography in
various aspects of biblical interpretation, see Iconography and Biblical Studies: Proceedings ofthe
Iconography Sessions the / 'EABS/SBL Conference, 22-26 July 2007, Vienna, Austria (ed.
Izaak j. de Huister and Rdiger Schmitt; AOAT 361; Mnster: Ugarit, 2009); Izaak I. de Huister,
Iconographie Exegesis and Third Isaiah (FAT 2/36; Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009); foel M.
LeMon, Yh w h s Winged Form in the Psalms: Exploring Congruent Iconography and Texts (OBO
242; Fribourg: Academic Press; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2010).
^See, for example, the important role that iconographical material plays in the extensive
Psalms commentary by Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary
Psalms 51-100 (trans. Linda M. Maloney; Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005); eidem.
Psalms 3: A Commentary Psalms 101-150 (trans. Linda M. Maloney; Hermeneia: Minneapolis:
Eortress, ^011). See also William p. Brown, Seeing the Psalms: A Theology ofMetaphor (Louisville:
Westminster John Knox, 2002).

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Journal ofBiblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

II. T h e T h r e a t

of

Y h w h s B l o w

Set within a larger divine oracle, Ps 81:13 begin$ with a statement that Gods
people would not listen and submit to God but instead walk according to their own
counsels.^ After announcing the problem, the oracle then moves to a conditional
statement (w . 14-16). Its protasis, recalling the themes ofv. 13, suggests that listening to Y h w h and walking according to his way provide the conditions for Y h w h s
actions against the adversaries o f Israel (v. 14).
13 $ 1 gave them over to the stubbornness o f their heart.
They walked according to their ow n counsels.
14 If only m y people w ould listen to me,
If Israel w ould walk in m y ways.

The apodosis of the conditional statement in V 15 presents a picture of these

divine acts, beginning in the first colon with God humbling the enemies.

Then 1 would quickly subdue their enem ies. (Ps 81:15a)

The verb in the hiphil appears several times in the Hebrew Bible. In most cases
the object of the verb is a person or people: Deut 9:3; Judg 4:23; 2 Sam 8:1; 1 Chr
17:10; 18:1; 2 Chr 28:19; Neh 9:24 lob 40:12.These instances of the verb suggest
a condition in which the enemies are defeated but not necessarily killed, or, at least,
not yet killed. In fact, these texts reflect a pattern process of violence in which
incapacitation and humiliation (represented by in the hiphil) precede the actual
killing ofthe enemies. Consider Judg 4:23-24, which describes God subduing King
Jabin (v. 23) before the Israelites destroy him ( ; , V 25). Nehemiah 9:24 provides a further example, describing Gods subjugation ofthe Canaanites so that the
Israelites could then do with them as they pleased () .
In both of these cases, it is important to note that God is the one who subdues
the enemies. Indeed, God is the agent in virtually every case where the hiphil of
appears; David subduing the Philistines in 2 Sam 8:1 = 1 Chr 18:1 provides the only
exception. The act of subduing enemies, then, seems to be a distinctly divine and/
or kingly activity in the Hebrew Bible. So as the picture ofYHWH begins to emerge
in the first half of this verse, we see God exercising uniquely royal/divine power to
subdue the enemies, an action that signals that the destruction ofth e enemies is
imminent.

13For structural analysis ofthis oracle, see Tate, Psalms 51-100, 325; Kraus, Psalms 60-150,
t47; Goldlngay, Psalms 42-89, 547.
14In Uvo instances the object is not the person exactly but the heart (Ps 107:12) and the
noise, that is, the mouth (Isa 25:5).

LeMon: Yh w h s Hand and the Iconography ofthe Blow

871

The next colon dc$crlbc$ the actions of Gods hand:

1 will rear back m y hand above their foes, (?s 18:15b)

As discussed above, several verses showcase the hand as the object of in the
hiphil (Gen 38:29; 1 Kgs 13:4; Josh 8:26; Lam 2:3, 8; ?s 74:11; Ezek 18:8,17; 20:22).
Those contexts uniformly warrant translating the verb with its simple causative
sense: to bring back or draw back. As such, the phrase typically indicates a cessation
of action or aggression. The context ofPs81:15, however, suggests that Gods violent
action is clearly in view. In fact, given the use ofyiD, destruction seems imminent.
Indeed, them is a way to understand the hiphil o f i w in this context with a simple
causative sense that also conveys an aggressive action ofYHWHs hand: 1 will rear
back my hand above their foes. At this point, the iconography ofthe ancient Near
East provides a helpful source of data, for the Psalmic imagery resonates with the
image ofthe Egyptian god-king rearing back his hand in preparations for striking
a blow against a subdued enemy.^
T^is image, often referred to as the smiting posture, originated in Egyptian art
in the Predynastic period as a way to represent the rulers lordship over enemies and
the chaos that they embody.^ The famous Narmer Palette provides one ofthe earliest
representations of this scene (see ftg. I).17 In this palette, the ruler stands above and
strides toward the kneeling enemy. The rulers left hand holds the enemys hair and
the right hand draws back the mace ready to strike the deathblow.* These essential
elements constitute one ofthe most common ways of representing the power ofthe
king against his enemies from the Predynastic period through the Roman period.*
Some ofthe clearest examples come from New Kingdom art, both monumental and
miniature. See, for example, a relief on a column from the foreconrt ofthe temple of

15Othmar Keel has already suggested that the presentation ofthe king in royai psalms bears
affinity to the ideology ofkingship evident in Egyptian iconography, though he has not linked ffie
image of the smiting king specifically with Ps 81:15 (Symbolism ofthe Biblical World, 291).
16For a study of the history and development o f this iconographie trope, see Emma Swan
Hall, The Pharaoh Smites His Enemies: A Comparative Study (Mnchner gyptologische Studien
44; Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1986). See also H. Schfer, Das Niederschlangen der
Feinde: Zur Geschichte eines gyptischen Sinnbildes, W ZKM 54 (1957): 168-76; and Keel,
Wirkmchtige Siegeszeichen, 11-82.
^See also the decorated Tomh 100 at Heirakonpolis (Humphrey Case and Joan Crowfoot
Fayne, Tomb 100: The Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis JEA 48 [1962]: 5-18).
For extensive treatment o fth e prehistory o f the image and its use in the context o f the
Narmer Falette, see Whitney Davis, Masking the Blow: The Scene o f Representation in Late Prehistoric Egyptian A rt (California Studies in the History of Art 30; Berkeley: University of
California Fress, 1992).
19Gay Robins, The A rt ofAncient Egypt (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Fress, 1997),
33. See also Hall, Pharaoh Smites; and Schfer, Das Niederschlangen der Feinde.

872

Journal ofBiblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

F i g u r e 1. Slate palette; Hierakonpolis,

ca. 2850 B .C .E .; after Keel, Symbolism /
the Biblical World, fig. 397.

Ramesses III at Medinet Habu (fig. 2).20 Here

Rame$$es II appears Iwlcc, wearing the red
and white crowns, poised to slay subjugated
enemies. The king is the same size as the gods
who authorize and observe his actions, suggesting that the king is equal to the gods and
indeed can be construed as a god himself.21
Another example from this same temple
complex (relief on the first pylon) shows
Ramesses III holding multiple enemies visible in profile, all of whom have their hands
raised in entreaty and humiliation.^2 This
imagery is reflected with particular clarity in
m in ia tu re on an ostracon from th e same
period (fig. 3).23 As in Ps 81:15, the ruler here
is pictured with not just one but many subjugated enemies in the moment before the
deathblow.
The image ofthe smiting king appears
outside of the Egypt as well, especially in
Late Bronze Age Syria-Palestine, where

F i g u r e 2 . Relief a
column from the forecourt of the temple of
Ramesses 111 at Medinet Habu. After Keel,

W irk m ch tig e SiegesZeichen, Abb. 47.

20Cf. Harold Hayden Nelson et al., Later Historical Records ofRamses III, vol. 2 of Medinet
Habu (OIP 9 Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932), pi. 121c.
21On the nature o f the interaction between god and pharaoh in this scene, see Othmar
Keel, Powerful Symbols o f ctory: The Parts Stay the Same, the Actors Change, JNSL 25 (1992):
208-9. For the complexities associated with understanding the pharaoh as god, see Ancient
Egyptian Kingship (ed. David OConnor and David p. Silverman; Probleme der g^ tologie 9
Leiden: Prill, 1995).
22See Keel, Symbolism ofthe Biblical World, pl. xxi; cf. Albert Champdor, Thbes aux cent
portes: 167 photographies, 40 vignettes et 4 hors-textes en couleurs daprs les aquarelles de
David Roberts (3rd ed.; Les hauts lieux de lhistoire 5; Paris: A. Guillot, 1955), 156.
23Cf. Illustrated World / the Bible Library (ed. Benjamin Mazar; 5 vols.; New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1961), 4:28.

LeMon: Yh w h s Hand and the Iconography ofthe Blow

873

Egyptian power and influence were

palpable. Testifying to its prevalence
in the Levant, the motif of the king
rearing back his hand to strike the
enemy can be found in scarab seals
from Beth-Shean, Tell Beit Mirsim,
and Tell eI-Farah (flg. 4a-c), for
example. Though admittedly much
more rudimentary than the iconographic prototypes in Egypt, these
objects show the king with hand
reared back, ready to strike the enemy
with the blow of a sickle sword.24 In
each case, the enemy is subdued and
humiliated in a completely submissive posture. In figures 4a and 4b, the
enemies kneel before the king, who
are bound behind the back, rendering
the captive unable to plead and/or
resist the impending blow.
This imageofdominationandsubjugationremains remarkably stable throughout multiple iterations in Egyptian and Egyptianizing art. Levantine examples from
the Iron Age include scarabs from Tel Masos (fig. 5a)2s and Tell el-Farah (fig. 5b),26
and an ivory carving from Samaria (now sadly lost) from the early ninth century B .c.E ., which reflects the thoroughly Egyptianizing elements o f Fhoenician
^ After Keel, Symbolism ofthe Biblical World, fig. 400. Fig. 4a.: cf. Alan Rowe, A Catalogue
ofEgyptian Scarabs, Scaraboids, Seals and Amulets in the Palestine Archaeological Museum (Cairo:
imprimerie de lInstitut franais darchologie orientale, 1936), no. 671. Flg. 4b.: cf. William
Foxwell Albright, The Excavation o f Tell Beit Mirsim 1 Palestine (AA$OR 12; New Haven: Yale
University Fress, 1932), 51, fig. 9.; Carl Watzinger, Denkmler Palstinas: Eine Einfhrung in die
Archologie des Heiligen Landes (2 vols. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1933), 1:40, fig. 3f. Fig. 4c.: cf. Rowe,
Catalogue ofEgyptian Scarabs, no. 670. Keel suggests that the prevalence o f this image is not
exclusively or even primarily propagandists, but rather that the images have a magical effect,
particularly at the frontiers o f the kingdom, to ward off danger and discourage enemies from
threatening the Egyptian state (Symbolism o f the Biblical World, 294).
^ See Othmar Keel, Menakhem Shuval, and Christoph Uehlinger, Studien zu den Stempelsiegeln aus Palstina/Israel, vol. 3, Die Frhe Eisenzeit: Ein Workshop (OBO 100; Fribourg:
Universittsverlag; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1989), 343-44. The image here is taken
from fig. 17.
Dated by w. M. Flinders Fetrie and Olga Tufnell (Beth Pelet: [Ted Fara] / [Publications of
the Egyptian Research Account and British School o f Archaeology in Egypt 48; London: British
School of Archaeology in Egypt, 1930], 319, pi. 31). Image after Keel, Shuval, and Uehlinger,
Studien zu den Stempelsiegeln, vol. 3, fig. 18.

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Journal ofBiblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

F i g u r e 4 _Scarab s e a $. Fig. 4a: Beth-Sh(e)an, Nineteenth Dynasty (1345-1200 B .C .E .); fig.

4b: Tell Beit Mirsim, end of the period ofRamses 11 (1301-1234 B .C .E .); fig 4c: Tell el-Farah,
Nineteenth Dynasty. See n. 24.

F i g u r e 5 a.

1050-900

Scarab from Tel Masos, dated

See n. 25.

B .C .E .

F i g u r e 5 b. Scarab from Tell el-Far'ah,

dated to the Twentieth Dynasty (11901075 B .c .E .) . See n. 26.

workmanship (fig. 6).27 Later Phoenician seals also render the same artistic constellation o f ruler with a reared back hand and a subdued enemy (figs. 7a and 7b).2
^ i s smiting posture occurs in various derivative forms throughout Mesopotamia, Syria-Palestine, and Anatolia as early as the nineteenth-eighteenth centuries

^After Keel, Symbolism o f the Biblical World, fig. 401 cfi John Winter Crowfoot and Grace
Mary Hood Crowfoot, Early Ivories from Samaria (London: Palestine Exploration Fund, 1938),
pL 141.
28Figures 7a and 7b: after Izak Cornelius, The Iconography ofthe Canaanite Gods Reshefand
Bacal: Late Bronze and Iron Age Periods (C 1500-1000) (OBO 140; Fribourg: University Press;
Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994), fig. 31 (my fig. 7a) and fig. 36b (my fig. 7b). See Eric
Gubel, The Iconography ofthe Ibiza Gem MAI 3650 Reconsidered, AuOr 4 (1986): 111-18, and
fig. 1. w. Culican suggests that the tree atop the subjugated enemy represents the cedars of
Lebanon (Melqart Representations on Phoenician Seals, A7r Nahrain 2 [1960-61]: 41-54).
However, Gubel has argued persuasively that the tree represents a cypress tree, which is the home
ofthe dwarf-demon that the smiting figure holds.

LeMon: Yh w h s Hand and the Iconography ofthe Blow

875

B.C.E.29 Indeed, several nnn-Egyptian deities,

including Baal (fig. 8),30 Resheph, Adad, and
Teshub, have the smiting posture in their
iconographie profiles, testifying to the visual
power and wide distribution of this originally Egyptian image.31As theimage migrates
through cultures, the weapons, headgear,
and dress vary, but the essential element, the
reared-back hand, remains constant. Nota
bly, outside of Egyptian and explicitly Egyptianizing art (e.g., Phoenician), subdued
enemies generally do not appear before these
F i g u r e 6 . Ivory carving from Samaria (early sriding menacing figures.32 These derivative
ninth century B .C .E . See n. 27.
images, therefore, do not align as closely with
the imagery in Psalm 81 as do their Egyptian
and E ^ tia td z in g prototypes. However, the Egyptian iconography with its constellation of images of domination and subjugation does reflect the literary imagery in
Psalm 81, and ^rticularfy when one interprets the hiphil of literally as to rear
back or bring back ones hand.
Yet what of the function ofthe prepositional phrase in Ps 81:15b?
The preposition has a wide range of meanings. Among them, Bruce Waltke and
M. OConnor indicate that the spatial sense of is primarily locational, that is,
upon, on, over, and at, beside, by.33 They also detail metaphorical usages of ,
of which against as a marker of disadvantage is an acceptable, though far less
frequent, reading (see 2 Kgs 17:3). So while the typical translation ofPs 81:15, 1
will turn my hand against their foes, is possible, in fact, one would expect to find

29Cornelius, Iconography ofthe Canaanite Gods, 256.

29Image after Cornelius, Iconography ofthe Canaanite Gods, fig. 27a; cf. C. F. A. Schaeffer,
Les fouilles de Minet el-Beida et de Ras Shamra (champagne du printemps 1929). Rapport
sommaire, Syria 10 (1929): pl. LI1I; Andr Caquot and Maurice Sznycer, Ugaritic Religion
(Iconography o f Religions 15.8; Leiden: Brill, 1980), pl. IX d. For other images of Baal in the
smiting posture and a thorough discussion of his iconography, see Jrg Fggler, Baal, in
Iconography o f Deities and Demons, online at: http://www.religionswissenschaft.unizh.ch/
id d /^ e ^ lic a tio n s/e _ id d _ b a a l.p d f (text); M ^ ://w w w .r e h g io n sw ie n c h ft.u n iz h .c h /id d /
^ e ^ b lica tio n s/e d d d ^ lu str a fto n s.b ^ .p d f (images); last updated December 19, 2007 (cited
July 26, 2011).
2 See Cornelius, Iconography o fth e Canaanite Gods, 255-59. For a catalogue of bronze
figurines in this posture throughout the Near East and a discussion o f its development and
distribution, see Dominique Collon, The Smiting Cod: A Study o f a Bronze in the Fomerance
Collection in New York, Levant 4 (1973): 111-34.
32 See Robert Houston Smith, Near Eastern Forerunners ofthe Striding Zeus, Archaeology
5(1962): 180.
33/BHS, 216 (11.2.13).

Journal ofBiblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

876

Figure 7a. Seal, Ibiza, sixth-fifth century

B.C.E.

See n. 28.

Fig u r e 7 b .

Seal, Ibiza, f i f t h century B .C .E .

See n. 28.

the preposition here as much as . Indeed, one frequently finds - conveying

the sense of against in the context of someone using ones hand violently against
a foe. Deuteronomy 2:15 provides a clear example:^

Indeed, the hand o f Yh w h was against them , to root
them out from foe camp completely.

In light of the patterns o f usage for - and and foe

iconography of the reared-backhand, foe common locational reading 0 ^ emerges as the most reasonable one
in this text. Thus: I will rear back my hand above their
enemies. Though it is possible that the preposition
here may denote both location and disadvantage, so that
over/above and foe metaphorical sense o fagainst may
be in view in this context.
In the pictorial images discussed above, the king
towers above foe enemies as foe largest figure in the
scene. These images reflect foe Egyptian (and wider
Mnetf 1'eida> Late ancient Near Eastern) iconographie principle ofhierarBronze Age- ee n. 30.
c h y of scale, whereby size and, particu}arly, height encode
importance.^^ s such, foe upraised hand as the highest point in foe image emphasizes the position of the king in relation to the enemies. Reading as above/
over their enemies therefore provides a literary correlate to the hierarchy of scale
in foe Egyptian smiting imagery. Construed in this way, the text portrays Yhwh as
utterly dominant.
Moving forward tov.16,one finds further evidence of the congruence between
foe literary and pictorial imagery, verse provides a fuller description of the fate
of those whom Yhwh has subdued and whom he is preparing to strike.
^See, e.g., Gen 16:12; Deut 2:15; 13:9; Judg 2:15; Ruth 1:13; 1 $am 5:9; 7:13; 12:15; 18:17,
etc.; IBHS, 197 (11.2.5.d.); HALOT, 104, s.v. .
35See Rubblns, A rt ofAncient Egypt, 32.

LeMon: Yh w h s Hand and the Iconography ofthe Blow

877

Those who hate Yhwh w shrink before him

A nd their suhm ission will last forever (Ps 81:16).

This verse Is not without its own translational difficulties. The verb in the
first colon and the noun in the second colon present unique challenges.
John H. Eatons reading ofthe verse significantly informs my own translation, one
that the NJPS and NRSV generally affirm as well.36 Eaton argues that the verb
in the '
conveys the action o f to grow lean/wither/become small/shrink.^ Taking the well-attested sense of the verb from Aramaic and later Hebrew, Eaton reasons: The enemies may/
/
with arrogant pride, but are quickly reduced when
they feel the weight o f [Gods] manifested glory.38 Indeed, this expression of the
diminution in size ofthe subjugated enemies accords well with the artistic principle
of hierarchy of scale that obtains in the various iconographie representations ofthe
towering ruler threatening a blow. Eaton goes on to suggest that in this verse is
derived from ^( be bowed down, afflicted, lowly), with the sense here that
their submission will continue forever.3 In short, this reading ofthe verse pictures
the enemies in a state of perpetual cowering and subjugation to Y h w h .
In considering once again the iconography ofthe blow in Egyptian art, we find
a uniquely powerful visual trope, as the numerous derivative ancient Near Eastern
forms attest. One can attribute the power o fth e image in part to the fact that it
captures a moment pregnant with expectation. One sees the potential energy ofthe
reared-back hand rather than the kinetic energy of the actual blow crushing the
scull ofthe enemy. The image therefore has a singular ability to hold the gaze ofthe
viewer in anticipation of the event that is about to be realized. In addition, as an
image of domination, the iconography ofthe blow acknowledges, however subtly,
the unsettling reality that the enemies are not yet vanquished. The enemy still lives
in these representations.
So the image conveys something ofthe persistence of danger and enmity, while
simultaneously reassuring the observer that the king in fact holds these chaotic
forces in check. He will obliterate them in a moment. Picturing that moment prior
to the blow expresses both the hope ofthose seeking salvation from the enemy and
the dread and despair ofthose about to be slain. In doing so, the imagery creates,

6Eaton, Some Questions o f ?hilology and Exegesis in the Psalms, JTS 19 (1968): 603-9.
Compare: Those who hate the Lord would cringe before him, and their doom would last
forever (NRSV) and Those who hate the Lord shall cower before Him; their doom shall be
eternal (NJPS).
^Eaton, Some Questions of Philology, 603-4.
38Ibid., 604 (my emphases).
39Ibid., 608. ^ e i r time is also a possible translation here. Tate argues as much: their
time ( ) seems to be a pregnant way o f saying that their time o f rebellion would be over or
that their time of submission/subjugation will be forever (Psalms 50-100, 321).

Journal ofBiblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

878

somewhat paradoxically, an endless moment in a drama of domination, suggesting

a violence that is never quite realized.
?salm 81:15-16 and the Egyptian iconography oftheblowboth relate the same
sense of expectation. In both text and art, the king/YHWH has subdued the enemies
but has yet to anquish them. Israel waits for Y h w h to strike the deathblow and
ultimately conquer evil (w . 15-16). At the same time, Y h w h waits as well, staying
his poised hand until Israel would listen and follow in foe paths that Yhwh has
directed (v. 14).
The larger poetic structure of Psalm 81 ultimately confirms the reading of
w . 15-16 for which I have argued above: a literary instantiation of a congruent
iconographie motif. The image ofthe king drawing back his hand over foe enemies
in preparation for foe deathblow is a distinctly Egyptian one. Likewise, foe psalm
situates itself in the context of Y h w h s dominance over foe Egyptians. The call to
praise Yhwh in w . 2-6b explicitly recalls the exodus from Egypt and locates foe
festival celebration so decreed (w . 5-6) as deriving from the exodus episode.^ The
divine or a cle beginning in 6c also recalls the events ofthe exodus, from the cries
of the people in slavery to their salvation, and ultimately to their testing in the
wilderness. Verse 11 contains another explicit reference to the exodus with the
self-identification of Y h w h as foe God who brought you up out ofth e land of
Egypt.
In light ofthe confluence ofimages of exodus and images derived from Egyptian iconography (. 15-16), one realizes that this picture of Y h w h acting against
foe foes of Israel reflects bofo a borrowing and a bold reappropriation ofEgyptian
imagery. Rather than the pharaoh as god-king poised to smite the subjugated foreigners, the psalm flips foe imagery of domination on its head. Yhwh now stands
above foe subjugated enemies of Israel with his arm reared back. The psalm pictures
the enemies frozen in the position ofhuiniliation as Y h w h s deathblow looms above
them, ^ e y await foe deadly violence of God while the Israelites await sustaining
and nourishing acts o f God, who promises to fill their open mouths (. 11), satisfying Israel with the finest wheat and honey from the rock (. 17).

III.

E l s e w h e r e i n t h e H e b r e w B ik i.k

The argument has proceeded above in line wifo foe principle that the immediate literary context of difficult and problematic phrases should be the governing
datum in determining meaning. As for in ?s 81:15, the immediate literary contextone informed by the larger ancient Near Eastern iconographie contextconveys the sense of rearing back ones hand above someone in a menacing
gesture. However, as discussed above, this reading does not fit the context of Jer

40See Tate, Psalms 50-100, 323.

LeMon: Yh w h s Hand and the Iconography ofthe Blow

879

6:9, where the phase appears as well. That context suggests a repeated action of
drawing the hand back and forth over something, a causative-iterative sense ofthe
hiphil of . What, then, ofthe other instances o f the phrase in the Hebrew bible?
Might the new reading o f? s 81:15 in light o f Egyptian and Egyptianizing iconography inform the translation o fth e phrase in other literary contexts? Though a
thorough examination of each of these contexts goes beyond the scope of this
article, the following brief discussion suggests that the reading of in Ps
81:15 is, at the very least, a viable translational option in other texts as well.
As in Psalm 81, often occurs alongside other divine threats and
descriptions of Godsviolentjudging action: against Israel in Isa 1:25 and Zech 15:7,
and against the Philistines in Amos 1:8. Isaiah 1:25 ( ) could certainly
be construed I will rear back my hand above you, given the immediate context of
violent threats of vengeance (v. 24) and acts of purification (w . 25b). As Joseph
Blenkinsopp has noted, there seems to be a missing colon here, so it is difficult to
determine precisely the sense o fth e phrase as ft is deployed in this context.41
Blenkinsopp, among others, opts for the oblique construction, I will turn my hand
against you,^ while some have imported the repetitive sense of the phrase from
Jer 6:9 Unfortunately, a definitive translation of Isa 1:25 eludes us. Yet, since the
context contains numerous threats ofviolence, the image of the God in a threatening posture could certainly be in view here, as it is in Ps 81:15.
Zechariah 13:7 ( ) also presents the phrase in the context
of a threat, here against the shepherd () . Most translations render the phrase
as a turning ofthe hand,44 and commentators have typically understood ft with a
generally negative connotation^ The threatening gesture ofYHWHs uplifted hand
^B l^ k nspp, Isaiah 1-39: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 19;
New York: Doubleday, 2000), 187.
^ O tto Kaiser reads, And 1 will turn my hand against you (Isaiah 1-12: A Commentary
[trans. John Bowden; 2nd ed.; OTL; Philadeiphia: Westminster, 1983], 39). Similarly, Hans
Wildberger: 1 want to turn my hand against you (Isaiah 1-12:A Commentary [trans. Thomas H.
Trapp; CC; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991], 69). John D. w. Watts expands on the verse very briefly
to suggest that turning the hand means to change from supporting to chastising (Isaiah 1-33
[rev. ed.; WBC 24; Nashville: b o rn a s Nelson, 2005], 39). Watts unfortunately provides no
Justification for his reading.
^See, e.g., Arnold B. Ehrlich, Randglossen zur Hebrischen Bibel: Textkritisches, Sprachliches
und Sachliches (7 vols.; Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1912), 4:8.
See, e.g., NRSV, NJFS, KJV, NASB, NJB. See also David L. Petersen, Zechariah 9-14 and
Malachi: A Commentary (TL; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1995), 128.
See, e.g., the comments of Carol L. Meyers and Eric M. Meyers, Zechariah 9-14: A New
Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 25C; New York Doubleday, 1993), 388-89.
The descriptions o f metallurgical purification in Zech 13:9 and Isa 1:25 prompt Meyers and
Meyers to understand that the locution of God turning his hand implies purification rather than
suggesting that the little ones ( ) are to be slain or exiled (p. 389). See also John Goldingay
and Pamela j. Scalise, Minor Prophets II (N1BCT; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2009), 306.
Scalise considers this verse simply to be describing G ods act o f Judgment.

880

Journal of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

against the little ones ( )may be in view, especially given that V 7 begins
with a reference to the sword. If so, the image would be of God wielding a sword
against the shepherd and poised to strike the shepherd boys, that is, the little ones.
In Amos 1:8, the phrase appears with reference to Gods judgment against the
?hi l i sti nes: . Again, most translations attribute to the phrase
some sort o f turning o f the hand, more in line with the qal of than the hiphily46
which commentators generally have presumed meant some devastating, though
elliptical, display of divine power.^ Interestingly, Francis 1. Andersen and David
Noel Freedman do indeed translate the phrase literally and 1 will bring back my
hand against Ekron,^ a reading that, at least on the face ofit, aligns with the Egyptian iconography of the blow. However, in the commentary after the translation,
they suggest that the phrase actually means strike with repeated blows following
William Rainey Harper.* Shalom M. Paul also interprets the phrase to mean striking [Ekron] with repeated blows.^ Despite these suggestions, unlike in the case of
Jer 6:9, none of the interpreters has identified a compelling reason to read a repetitive sense of in this context.
The notion ofYHWH rearing back his hand menacingly above Ekron is indeed
particularly attractive in this context because of the reference to the mace ()
e a r l i e r in V. 8 :
#

I w ill cut off the inhabitants from Ashdod

And the one w h o holds the m ace from Ashkelon.
1 w ill rear back m y hand above Ekron,
And the remnant o f the Philistines will perish
says the Lord Yh w h .

**See NRSV, NJB, NJPS, KJV.

4 See, e.g., Hans Waiter Wolff, Joel and Amos: A Commentary the Books ofthe Prophets Joel
and Amos (trans. Waldemar Janzen, Dean McBride !., and Charles A. Mnenchow; Hermeneia;
Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977), 130. Wolff translates the phrase: 1 will turn my hand against Fkron
(ibid.). In the commentary section, Wolff expands: Yahwehs hand, turned against Lkron, denotes
his overwhelming strength (p. 158). James Luther Mays translates similarly, arguing that the phrase
contributes to the larger description o f the utter defeat ofth e Philistines: by his [ Y h w h s] hand
their defenses would be breached, their kings cut off, and the population slain to the last man
(Am05:A Commentary [OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969], 33).
48Andersen and Freedman, Amos: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary
(AB 24A; New York: Doubleday, 1989), 258.
49Ibid., 259; William Rainey Harper, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary Amos and
Hosea (ICC 20; New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1910), 26.
50Paul translates the phrase, I will turn my hand against Fkron, and expands later to
suggest the repetitive sense ofthe phrase (Amos: A Commentary the Book ofAmos [Hermeneia;
Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991], 43, 58 n. 147).

s.

LeMon: Yh w h s Hand and the Iconography ofthe Blow

881

The ne who holds the mace Is of course a circumlocution for the ruler of
Ashkelon. Thus, one could read the text as God destroying a ruler of one ?hilistine
city and, as it were, seizing his mace to rear it back threateningly against another
?hilistine city.
Ezekiel 38:12 is the only other text where one finds the phrase, though this
context does not describe Gods hand in judgment. In Ezekiel 38, Gog is considering an evil scheme to attack the newly resettled Judeans. Among the actions he
considers is:

to rear back your hand above the repopulated wastelands and against the peopie w ho were gathered from the nations, w ho acquired cattle and belongings,
w ho dw elled at the center o fth e land.

In this context, the phrase clearly indicates an aggressive action. Yet

predictably, translations ofthe phrase vary widely. The NJ?S opts for the sense of
turning ones hand against, while foe NRSV provides a more figurative reading:
to assail the waste places that are now inhabited. While many commentators read
turning the hand,52 Walter Eichrodt and Leslie c . Allen have translated Ezek 38:12
essentially as I am arguing here, with the phrase indicating a raising or lifting
of ones hand against the land, though neither has linked the literary imagery hem
with iconography or, for that matter, provided any comment on their translations.^5
^ i s brief discussion o fth e v a r io u s o c c u r r e n c e s of has had two
goals: first, to show that these texts (Isa 1:25 Zech 13:7; Amos 1:8 Ezek 38:12; Jer
6:9) should not be overly determinative for identifying the meaning ofthe phrase
in ?s 81:15; and, second, to suggest that foe proposed reading of ?s 81:15 might
actually shed some light on the phrase in other literary contexts, w h ile none ofthe
other literary contexts aligns so completely with the standard iconographical trope
ofthe Egyptian king and his subjugated enemies, foe reading rear back ones hand
above someone/something is reasonable in Isa 1:25; Zech 13:7; Amos 1:8; and Ezek
38:12. In the contexts where weapons am mentioned (mace in Amos 1:8; and sword
Zech 13:7), the case is even stronger that foe phrase depicts an armed Y h w h in a
threatening posture.
If these texts do indeed reflect ionographic material through the phrase
T , foe imagery may well be drawn more generally from various representations
of images of ancient Near Eastern deities in smiting posture (e.g., Baal in fig. 8)
The LXX inciudes a first person com m on singular suffix here, which makes for a
smoother reading.
^See, e.g., Walther Zimmerli, who translates the phrase without comment: to turn your
hand against (re-)nhabted ruins (Ezekiel 2: A Commentary the Book ofthe Prophet Ezekiel,
Chapters 25-48 [trans. James D. Martin; Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1983], 287).
Fichrodt, Ezekiel: A Commentary (trans. osslett Quin; QTL; London: SCM, 1970), 516;
Allen, Ezekiel 20-48 (WBC 29; Dallas: Word, 1990), 198.

882

Journal ofBiblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

rather than the particular image ofthe Egyptian king standing above the enemies.^
If so, then these texts would stand alongside others, like Ps 10:12, in which scholars
have already noted a correspondence between Yhwh as a divine warrior with
uplifted hand and the similar iconographie portrayals of ancient Near Eastern
deities.55

IV. C o n c l u s i o n

The foregoing analysis of Ps 81:14-16 has shown that this text is a literary
instantiation ofthe iconographie trope ofthe Egyptian king lifting his hand menacingly above his subjugated enemies. As for the particular rhetorical function of
w . 14-16, the allusion to the iconography ofthe blow reminds the community of
the stark threat of Egyptian overlordship even as it radically inverts the standard
Egyptian iconographie trope o f domination and subjugation. In the psalmists
vision, Y h w h has supplanted the pharaoh in his position of dominance and now
stands ready to vanquish any other foe who might oppose the community. Thus,
the psalmist recasts an ancient image in a new form and, in doing so, vividly pictures
hope for the people: that Yhwh will again act as he did for their ancestors.

54 As noted earlier, only Egyptian and Egyptianizing iconography contains representations

ofboth the violent actor and the subjugated enemies.
55 See discussion in Brown, Seeing the Psalms, 175-78, and esp. Martin Klingbeil, Yahweh
Fightingfi-om Heaven: God as Warrior and as God ofHeaven in the Hebrew Psalter and Ancient
Near Eastern Iconography (OBO 169; Fribourg: University Fress; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 1999).


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