Multiobjective MPPT/Charging Controller for Standalone PV Power Systems

under Different Insolation and Load Conditions

Zhenhua Jiang and Roger A. Dougal
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of South Carolina
Columbia, SC 29208, USA
Email: [jiang, dougal]@engr.sc.edu
Phone: +1-803-777-7890
Fax: +1-803-777-8045
Abstract This paper presents a novel multiobjective control
algorithm for standalone PV power systems that can track the
maximum power point of the solar array while limiting the
charging/discharging current and voltage of the battery under
different insolation and load conditions. A state machine model
of the multiobjective control algorithm is described. The largesignal stability of the system is analyzed. The controller design is
verified by numerical simulation in the Virtual Test Bed (VTB)
environment for orbital and land-based applications. Simulation
results show that the control strategy is robust and demonstrate
that the power converter can be appropriately regulated to meet
multiple objectives required by standalone PV power systems.
Index Terms PV power system, battery charger, MPPT,
multiobjective control, state machine model.

I. INTRODUCTION
As the concerns of the fossil fuel exhaustion and the environmental pollution increase, renewable energy conversion
systems become more and more attractive. Among them,
photovoltaic (PV) power generation systems stand out as an
important solution because they produce electrical power
without introducing environmental pollution by directly
converting the solar energy into electricity and also because
the solar energy is unexhausted. They can find various
applications such as those for the household appliances, for
the soldiers in the remote missions, for the solar cars, and
even for the electric aircrafts [1]. They can be built into a
power plant and then connected to the power grid through
appropriate power conversion interfaces [2]. Also, they are
ubiquitous in the spacecrafts where the sunlight is sufficient.
Since the solar insolation varies with time and the solar
cell has a nonlinear voltage-current characteristic [3], subject
to vary with the change of the operating conditions such as
solar insolation, the ambient temperature, the load, wind, etc,
the PV system has to track the maximum power point (MPP)
by controlling a DC/DC converter interposed between the
solar array and the power bus to ensure the efficient
operation. The objective of maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) is to continuously tune the power converter so that it
draws maximum power from the solar array regardless of
weather or load conditions. Many MPP tracking algorithms
have been developed [4]-[9]. Perturb and Observe [4] and
Incremental Conductance [5] are the most widely used
methods. Other MPPT techniques include short-circuit

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current method [6], and the open-circuit voltage method [7].

Recently, some other methods such as fuzzy controller or
neural network controller have been developed for maximum
power point tracking [8], [9]. The battery is generally used in
a standalone PV power system to store energy when the solar
insolation is sufficient or the load is light and to provide
energy in the case of no sunlight or a heavy load [10], [11].
In existing MPPT systems, there are two kinds of
configurations: series and parallel configurations. The series
MPPT system, as shown in Figure 1, is considered here. In
this system, in order to save components and to increase
system efficiency, the power converter acts not only as a
maximum power point tracker but also as a charger to
manage the state-of-charge of the battery by regulating the
charging current or voltage. In this case, control of the power
converter is actually a multiobjective control problem [12],
[13]. Rather than being controlled to serve as a sole voltage
or current regulator, the power converter is required to
regulate and balance the power flow between the solar array
and the battery under different insolation and load conditions
for three objectives: (1) to maximize the output power from
the solar array when the load is heavy or the solar insolation
is weak, (2) to limit the charging current of the battery when
the load is light or the solar insolation is strong, and (3) to
limit the voltage of the battery to prevent overcharging.

Figure 1. MPPT/charging configuration of a standalone PV power system.

This paper presents a multiobjective control algorithm for

standalone PV power systems that can track the maximum
power point while limiting the current/voltage of the battery
under different insolation and load conditions. A state
machine model of the multiobjective control algorithm is
described. The mode changes and large-signal behaviors of
the system are analyzed. The controller design is verified by
simulation in the Virtual Test Bed (VTB) environment [14].

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II. MULTIOBJECTIVE MPPT/CHARGING ALGORITHM

A. Multiobjective Control Algorithm
In the MPPT/charging configuration shown in Figure 1,
the only control input is the duty cycle of the power
converter. By changing the duty cycle, the output current of
the solar array and the current (or voltage) of the battery can
be regulated, but not independently. The control strategy that
we describe here has three regulation modes: maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) mode, battery current limit
(BCL) mode, and battery voltage limit (BVL) mode. The
battery voltage is an important index of the regulation mode.
If the battery voltage exceeds the voltage limit, which may
correspond to the condition of high solar insolation, no load,
or a light load coupled with high battery charge level, BVL
mode applies to prevent the battery from overcharging. Under
this mode, the output current of the solar array may be away
from the current at MPP and the charging current of the
battery should be below the current limit. If the battery
voltage is below the voltage limit, which may correspond to
the condition of low solar insolation, a heavy load or a light
load coupled with low battery charge level, MPPT mode or
BCL mode may apply, depending on solar insolation and the
load. If the load demand makes the battery current to reach
the current limit, the charging current of the battery may need
to be regulated in order to protect the battery, i.e., BCL mode
applies. In this case, the solar array current is unregulated. If
the load demand is very high, the battery may be discharged
or be charged at a lower rate and then MPPT mode may
apply. In this case, the control strategy aims to draw as much
power as possible from the solar array.
Figure 2 shows the state machine representation [15] of
the multiobjective control strategy. The circles represent the
regulation modes (states) of the system. The arrows indicate
changes from one regulation mode to another (events). Each
event happens under a corresponding condition that is unique
to the current regulation mode (state). Initially, it always
works in MPPT mode. If there is no load or a light load, the
charging current of the battery may increase quickly to the
limit current, and then BCL mode applies. Whenever the
battery voltage reaches the voltage limit, BVL mode will
apply. Under either BCL mode or BVL mode, if the load
increases very quickly (i.e., both the battery voltage and the
battery current are lower than their limits), MPPT mode will
apply. Under any of these three modes, the load will be
disconnected (DISC) if the battery discharging current
exceeds the safe operating limit (for instance, 4 times the
rated charging current), which corresponds to the condition
that the load is extremely heavy, or if the battery voltage is
lower than the low voltage limit.
At any time, the control strategy selects only one
regulation mode and then the power converter has only one
control objective. The duty cycle of the power converter is
then set according to this objective. Whenever a change in the
insolation, the battery or the load results in satisfaction of the

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corresponding event condition, the control strategy will move

to another regulation mode and the control output (the duty
cycle of the power converter) is calculated afresh according
to the new objective, which makes it possible to implement
the multiobjective control strategy with only a single control
variable. In the configuration shown in Figure 1, this control
strategy accounts for all of the possible regulation modes and
the corresponding conditions that result in the changes of
regulation modes. Under any condition of the whether and the
load, the control strategy can select the regulation mode
appropriately, as will be shown later in this paper.

States:
MPPT: Maximum Power Point Tracking mode
BCL: Battery Current Limit mode
BVL: Battery Voltage Limit mode
DISC: Disconnecting the Load
Conditions of Events:
1: Power on
2: Ib > Iref
3: Ib < Iref
4: Vb > Vref
5: Vb < Vref, Ib > Iref (This rarely happens)
6: Vb < Vref
7: Vb > Vref
8, 9, 10: Vb < Vref,, Ib < Idisc (for instance, Idisc = -4 x Iref. This happens under
very heavy load)
Figure 2. State machine representation of the control strategy for
MPPT/charging in a standalone PV power system.

B. Implementation of Control Algorithm

The control strategy is then coded in the VTB. The main
functional blocks in this algorithm are the regulation mode
select module, MPPT module and the compensation loop
module. The regulation mode select module realizes the
control strategy shown in Figure 2 and outputs the regulation
mode selected. The regulation mode is determined according
to the operating conditions (the previous regulation mode and
the measured currents and voltages) and the logic of the
control strategy. The compensation loop module is used to
compute the duty cycle of the power converter according to
the selected regulation mode (control objective).
Incremental conductance method is exploited in this study
to track the maximum power point of the solar array. At any
instant, as shown in Figure 1, the solar array output power
Psa, although a function of the local insolation, the array
temperature, and the array voltage, can be described by (1).

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Psa = Vsa I sa

(1)

where Vsa and Isa are the sampled voltage and current of the
solar array module. Differentiating (1) yields

1 dPsa I sa dI sa
=
+
Vsa dVsa Vsa dVsa

(2)

Lat us define the instantaneous conductance and incremental

conductance of the solar array, respectively, as
G = I sa Vsa and G = dI sa dVsa . Since the solar array
voltage is positive, we can easily get the following from (2).
dPsa dV sa > 0 if G > G
dPsa dV sa = 0 if G = G
dPsa dV sa < 0 if G < G

(3)

Equation (3) suggests that the operating voltage is below the

voltage at MPP if the instantaneous conductance is greater
than the incremental conductance, and vice versa. The MPPT
algorithm is therefore to search the voltage operating point at
which the instantaneous conductance is equal to the
incremental conductance. The MPPT algorithm is illustrated
in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Flow chart of Incremental Conductance algorithm for MPPT.

A full PID algorithm is used to regulate the charging

current or voltage of the battery when the system operates at
BCL or BVL mode. The compensation loops for current
regulation and voltage regulation are, respectively,
implemented as follows.

d (n ) = d (n 1) + k p ,i I ref (n ) I (n ) +
n

k i,i I ref (k ) I (k ) + k d ,i (I (n) I(n 1) )

k =0

(4)

d (n ) = d (n 1) + k p ,v Vref (n ) V (n ) +
n

k i,v Vref (k ) V (k ) + k d ,v (V (n) V(n 1) )

k =0

(5)

where d(n) and d(n-1) are duty cycles at the current and
previous sampling steps respectively, I(n) and V(n) are,
respectively, the sampled current and voltage of the battery at
the current step, Iref(n) is the reference current of the battery,

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and Vref is the reference voltage of the battery, kp,i and kp,v are
the current and voltage proportional gains, ki,i and ki,v are the
current and voltage integral gains, and kd,i and kd,v are the
current and voltage derivative gains.
III. LARGE-SIGNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS
Due to nonlinearities in the solar array, the battery and the
load, the system may often have multiple equilibrium points,
wherein only one is desirable. The multiobjective control
algorithm may cause the system to frequently change from
one mode to another. The need to ensure large-signal stability
of the system may require some basic understanding of largesignal behavior of the system. In the following, the changes
of operation mode and the large-signal behaviors of the
system are analyzed.
A. Changes of Operation Mode
While the control algorithm has three regulation modes,
the system may have five operating modes: battery-only
discharging mode, MPPT discharging mode, MPPT charging
mode, constant current charging mode, constant voltage
charging mode. At the first three operating modes, the
controller regulates the system at MPPT mode. The changes
of operation mode are described as follows.
During the total darkness period, the solar array does not
produce electric power and only the battery is discharged to
the load. Whenever sunlight is present and there is not
enough power for the solar array to source the load, the
power converter begins to track the maximum power from
the solar array and the battery discharges. When the
increasing insolation makes the capacity of the solar array to
exceed the load demand, the extra power automatically flows
into the battery and then the battery is charged. If the
irradiance is so great or the load becomes so low that the
charging current of the battery exceeds the safe limit, then the
power converter begins to regulate the charging current
within the safe range. Whenever the battery voltage reaches
the high limit, the power converter starts to regulate the
battery voltage so that it stands at a constant level. Any
change in the insolation and load may cause the operating
mode to change to another.
B. Large-Signal Behaviors
During the darkness mode, only the battery powers the
load, therefore the system stability is guaranteed. When the
system operates at the MPPT discharging mode, the solar
array operates at the maximum power point, and therefore the
source line 1 must be a constant power line. Source line 2, a
varying voltage source, represents the output of the battery.
The battery provides an appropriate amount of current to
compensate for the discrepancy between the source line 1 and
the load line, as shown in Figure 4-a. Thus only one
equilibrium point exists. Assuming a constant power load
line, the output power of the battery is constant; thus the
battery current depends on the voltage. The source line 2 will
move leftwards or rightwards on the state plane.

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When the system operates at the MPPT charging mode,

the solar array operates at the maximum power point while
the battery acts as a varying voltage sink. The extra power
from the solar array will flow into the battery to compensate
for the discrepancy between the source line 1 and the load
line, as shown in Figure 4-b. Thus only one equilibrium point
exists. Assuming a constant power load line, the input power
of the battery is constant; thus the battery charging current
depends on the voltage. The change from MPPT discharging
mode to MPPT charging mode or vice-versa does not cause
any stability problem, since the power converter always
tracks the maximum power point of the solar array. The only
difference between these two changes is that the current
flows into or out of the battery.
When the battery charging current is regulated at constant
current or the battery voltage at constant voltage, the battery,
seen by the solar array, is a constant power load line at any
instant. We can get a single constant power load line by
combining it with the series regulator load line, as illustrated
in Figure 4-c. It can be seen that there are three equilibrium
points. At this time, the solar array output voltage is not
regulated and becomes floating. It has been shown in [16]
that the operating point will move from the voltage at MPP to
the desirable stable equilibrium point near the solar array
open-circuit voltage (Figures 4-c). The constant power load
line will move along the v-i curve of the solar array,
depending on the load demand, and the solar array output
voltage will vary with the load demand. When the load is
increased so that the equilibrium points become only one, the
system will switch to MPPT mode (Figures 4-a, and 4-b).

IV. APPLICATION I: SATELLITE POWER SYSTEM

The multiobjective control algorithm can be employed in
different applications. To investigate the performances of the
control strategy, two case studies are conducted by numerical
simulation in the VTB, respectively, for orbital and landbased applications. While a satellite power system is
considered in this section, a wearable PV power source will
be studied in the next section.
Figure 5 shows the VTB schematic view of a 3kW satellite
power system under study. The simulation model comprises a
solar irradiance model to illuminate the solar cells, a solar
array to convert the solar illumination into electrical power, a
lithium-ion battery array, a buck converter, a resistive load, a
pulsed power load, and a bus voltage regulator [17], [18].
Several auxiliary components in the system are responsible
for appropriate and efficient operation of the entire system.
The primary energy conversion device is a 220 x 40 (series
by parallel connections) array of single junction silicon cells.
Each cell has an active area of 2.4 x 6.6 cm2, and a
responsivity of 0.35 A/W. The battery is a 20 x 20 array of
Li-Ion cells, each having a voltage of 4.2V at full charge and
a capacity of 1.5 A-hrs. The initial state-of-charge of the
battery is 0.5. All the solar array cells and all the battery cells
are lumped into a single model for this particular simulation.

Figure 5. VTB schematic view of a satellite power system.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 4. Illustration of large-signal behaviors of the system.

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The payload consists of a constant power load of 1kW and

a pulsed power load alternately drawing 1.5kW and 0.5kW.
The limit of the battery charging current is set at 20A,
according to the maximum safe charging rate. The battery
voltage during charging is limited to 84V. The bus voltage is
regulated at 120V. The satellite is running on the low Earth
orbit (LEO) at the attitude of 798 km. The simulation is run
for 100 minutes, and the simulation results are shown in
Figures 6 through 9. Figure 6 shows the voltages of the solar
array, the battery, and the load. Figure 7 shows the currents
from the solar array, from the battery and to the load. The
calculated state-of-charge of the battery is plotted in Figure 8.
Figure 9 displays the changes of regulation mode in the
controller.
It is shown in Figure 7 that, when the satellite is initially in
the sunlight and the load draws a high current, MPPT mode
applies (see Figure 9). At this moment, the solar array

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provides about 33A current and the battery is charged at 10A,

which is lower than the current limit. When the load draws
low power, the charging current increases to 20 A (the
current limit) and then BCL mode applies (see Figure 9). At
this time, the solar array supplies about 30A current and the
voltage of the solar array increases a little bit. But the output
power of the solar array is a little lower than the maximum
power available. When the battery voltage reaches the limit at
3300s, CBV mode applies and the battery voltage is regulated
at 84V. The charging current of the battery begins to decrease
and so does the solar array output current; consequently, the
voltage of the solar array increases a little. When the satellite
is in eclipse, the voltage and current of the solar array drop to
zero. During this time, the battery is discharged at a current
between 20A and 32A, depending on the load, and the battery
voltage decreased gradually after a sudden drop (Figure 6).
When the satellite moves to the next cycle, MPPT mode
applies again. The state-of-charge of the battery, as shown in
Figure 8, increases when the battery is charged and decreases
when it is discharged. During each cycle, the net increase of
the state-of-charge is positive. This is because the average
power of the load is a little less than the average output power
of the solar array and the net input power to the battery is
positive during each cycle. Figure 9 shows that the regulation
mode is selected correctly according to the insolation
conditions, the battery charge levels and the load.
Simulation results show that the solar array current,
battery current and battery voltage are regulated properly.
Simulation results also suggest that the single power
converter can be regulated to meet the multiple objectives
required by the satellite PV power system. In the satellite, the
solar arrays are built oversized in order to still make them
workable at end of life after years of meteorite damage. The
loads do not necessarily undergo large power fluctuations;
thus the battery is usually sized to meet the basic power
requirement of the satellite during eclipse. Thus, the control
algorithm makes more sense in respect of limiting the battery
charging current and voltage than MPPT.

40
30

Current(A)

20
10
0
-10
-20
SA
Battery
Load

-30
-40
0

1000

2000

3000
4000
5000
6000
T ime(s)
Figure 7. Currents from the solar array, from the battery, and to the load.

1000

2000

State-of-charge

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0

3000
T ime(s)

4000

5000

6000

Figure 8. Calculated state-of-charge of the battery.

4
3.5

Regulation mode

120

Voltage(V)

100
80

0
0

3000
4000
5000
6000
Time(s)
Figure 9. Change of the regulation mode (1: MPPT, 2: BCL, 3: BVL).

SA
Battery
Load

3000
4000
5000
6000
T ime(s)
Figure 6. Voltages of the solar array, the battery, and the load.

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1.5

0.5

40

0
0

60

20

2.5

1000

2000

1000

2000

V. APPLICATION II: WEARABLE PV POWER SOURCE

With the development of flexible thin-film photovoltaic
technologies, solar technologies are being integrated into
clothing. Developed to meet the needs for portable power of

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2A current (the current at MPP) and the battery is charged at

a current between 0A and 1A, which is lower than the current
limit. When the load draws low power, the charging current
increases to 2A (the battery current limit) and then BCL
mode applies (see Figure 14). At this time, each solar array
supplies about 1.5A current and the voltage of the solar array
increases a little bit. But the output power of the solar array is
a little lower than the maximum power available.
When the solar arrays are totally shaded at 800s, the
voltage and current of the solar array drop to zero. During
this period, the battery powers the load and is discharged at
4A (Figure 13). When one solar array is partially shaded, the
shaded array outputs a smaller current (Figure 12) but the
controller can still track the MPP and the output voltages of
the two arrays are almost the same (Figure 13). At 2800s, the
battery voltage reaches the limit and then the controller
begins to operate at BVL mode and the battery voltage is
regulated at 24V (Figure 12). Less current flows into the
battery and thus the output current of the solar array declines,
resulting in the increase of the solar array output voltage.
Figure 15 shows the regulation mode is selected correctly.
1000
Received solar insolation (W/m2)

todays mobile devices, the solar jacket is offering a personal

solar power solution [19]. The wearable PV power source is
thus becoming an attractive solution to the portable power
source. In the wearable PV power source, the size and weight
of the system is an important consideration; the solar array is
sized to meet the basic power requirement of electronic
equipment while the battery is sized to provide power when
the solar array is fully or partially shaded by the tree, cloud,
building, etc. In this application, the proposed multiobjective
MPPT/charging algorithm has a capability to accomplish the
power management requirement of the system.
Figure 10 shows the schematic view of a 100W wearable
PV power source under study. The solar panel on the jacket is
configured as two arrays of 60 x 5 cells, each cell having an
active area of 1.2 x 0.5 cm2, and a responsivity of 0.305 A/W.
The battery is a 4 x 2 array of Li-Ion cells. The bus voltage is
regulated at 24V. The power source is assumed to be located
at the latitude 34N and longitude 82W. The system is
operated from 13:00PM to 14:00PM, May 12, 2004. The
ambient temperature is assumed to be 300K constantly during
the operation. A scenario that the solar arrays both are totally
shaded by the cloud, tree or building and a scenario that the
solar arrays each are partially shaded at different time is
studied to verify the control algorithm. The initial state-ofcharge of the battery is 0.5. The load draws 88W of peak
power and 56W of basic power alternately. The limit of the
battery charging current is set as 2A, according to the
maximum safe charging rate. The voltage of the battery is
limited to 16.8V. Simulation results are shown in Figures 11
through 14. Figure 11 shows the received solar insolation.
The voltages of the solar array, the battery, and the load are
shown in Figure 12. Figure 13 shows the currents from the
solar array, from the battery and to the load. The change of
regulation mode is plotted in Figure 14.

800

600

400

200
SA1
SA2
0
0

500

1000

1500 2000 2500 3000

T ime(s)
Figure 11. Received solar insolation.

3500

35
30

Voltage(V)

25

Figure 10. VTB schematic view of a residential power system.

15
10

The solar insolation during one hour of operation is almost

constant but the received insolation is less than the solar
insolation when the solar array is partially shaded and is zero
when the solar array is totally shaded (see Figure 11). When
the load initially draws peak power, MPPT mode applies (see
Figure 14). At this moment, each solar array provides about

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20

1159

SA1
SA2
Battery
Load

5
0
0

500

1000

1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

T ime(s)
Figure 12. Voltages of the solar array, the battery, and the load.

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VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the US Office of Naval
Research under contract N000140310952.

5
SA1
SA2
Battery
Load

4
3

[1]

Current(A)

2
1

[2]

0
-1

[3]

-2

[4]

-3
-4
0

500

[5]

1000

1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

T ime(s)
Figure 13. Currents from the solar array, from the battery, and to the load.

[6]
4
3.5

[7]
Regulation mode

3
2.5

[8]

2
1.5

[9]

1
0.5
0
0

[10]
500

1000

1500 2000
T ime(s)

2500

3000

3500

Figure 14. Change of the regulation mode (1: MPPT, 2: BCL, 3: BVL).

Simulation results demonstrate that the controller regulates

the solar array outputs and the battery voltage and current
properly, and show that the single power converter can be
regulated to meet the requirements of the wearable PV power
source under different insolation and load conditions.
VI. CONCLUSION
This paper has presented a multiobjective controller for
standalone PV power systems that can track the maximum
power point of the solar array while limiting the current/
voltage of the battery under different insolation and load
conditions. A state machine model of the multiobjective
control algorithm is described. The mode changes and largesignal behaviors of the system are analyzed. The controller
design is verified by numerical simulation in the VTB
environment for both orbital and land-based applications.
Simulation results show that the control strategy is robust
and that the power converter can be appropriately regulated
to meet the multiple objectives required by standalone PV
power systems. Simulation results also demonstrate that the
proposed multiobjective control algorithm is capable to
accomplish the power management requirement of an interesting wearable PV power source.

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[11]
[12]

[13]
[14]

[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]

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Solar SCOTTeVEST jacket, designed to carry, connect and charge
mobile devices, will stage at CTIA 2004 Fashion in Motion Show,
[online] http://www.scottevest.com/htmlemail/icp_release/ctia2.html

0-7803-8486-5/04/$20.00 2004 IEEE