Gamboa, Lois Danielle L.

Social concerned with the nature and

BSMT-2A

causes

of

General Psychology

feelings

and

Chapter 1

Psychology -

and mental processes.

Psychology seeks to:
o describe
o explain
o predict
o control behavior and mental processes
A theory (a formulation of relationships

for

applications
Applied
research

to define their patients problems

School identify and assist students

social

and

motivation,

and

of

such

as

automobile

dashboards more user-friendly

Consumer behavior of shoppers
an

effort

to

predict

and

influence their behavior

Health study the effects of stress on
health

problems

and

guide

clients

toward healthier behavior patterns

Sport help athletes concentrate on
their performance and not on the
crowd,

use

cognitive

strategies

to

enhance performance and to avoid

o

choking under pressure

Forensic apply psychology to the

criminal justice system

Aristotle
o Argued that human behavior is subject
o

to rules and laws.

personality, sensation and perception,
thought,

emotional

intelligence,

needs

and

motives, feelings, and emotion, and

changes that occur throughout the

o

basic

businesses
Human Factors make technical

in

system
Developmental study the physical,
cognitive,

thought,

systems

and instructional methods for a school

o

in

emotion
Industrial focus on the relationships

who have problems that interfere with

learning
Educational focus on course planning

specialize

people in organizations such as

psychological disorders adjust to the

o

between people and work

Organizational behavior

solutions to particular problems

o Practice
o Teaching
Fields of Psychology
o Clinical

help
people
with

one another
Experimental

memory,

research

demands of life
Counseling use interviews and tests

social

sensation and perception, learning and

conducted in an effort to find

in

situations
Environmental study the ways that

immediate
-

behavior

processes such as the nervous system,

underlying observed events) allows you to:

o propose reasons for relationships
o derive explanations
o make predictions
What Do Psychologists Do
o Research
Pure research - research conducted
concern

thoughts,

people and the environment influence

scientific study of behavior

without

individuals

human traits and determine influences

memory
o Peri Psyches
Democritus
o Suggested that we could think of

on human though processes, feelings

behavior in terms of a body and mind

lifespan
Personality identify and measure

and behavior

(interaction of biological and mental

o

processes)
Behavior is influenced by external

stimulation.
o free will vs. choice
Socrates
o Introspection - deliberate

Koffka, Wolfgang Khler) the school of

psychology that emphasizes the tendency
to organize perceptions into wholes and to
integrate separate stimuli into meaningful

looking

patterns
o focused

into ones own cognitive processes to

o

Gestalt psychology (Max Wertheimer, Kurt

to

achieve

self

knowledge
People are

social

creatures

who

influence each other

Gustav Theodor Fechner
o Elements of Psychophysics

their parts
Active and purposeful
Insight learning
Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud) the
school of psychology that emphasizes the

showed how physical events (light and

importance of unconscious motives and

sounds) are related to psychological

conflicts as determinants of human behavior

o Influence of unconscious motives and

laboratory (1879)
Structuralism (William Wundt) - the school
of psychology that argues that the mind
consists

of

sensations,

three
feelings,

basic
and

conflicts
o Theory of personality
o Therapy
Perspectives
o Cognitive having to do with mental

elements

processes

imagesthat

in

addition

consciousness
o Used
direct

language,

to

mind

supplement introspection
Influenced by Darwins

theory

to
of

evolution
Behaviorism (John Broadus Watson) - the
school

of

psychology

that

o
stimulus

that

follows a response and increases the

frequency of the response

with

problem

ways

we

process information
Memory, perceptions,

learning,

problem

decision

solving,

for self- fulfillment

Role of consciousness,

defines

stimuli and responses

o B.F. Skinner
Learned behavior is behavior that
a

and

Humanism stresses human capacity

behavior and studies relationships, between

is reinforced
reinforcement

thought,

and

intelligence,

making, language, planning

Humanistic

Existential

psychology as the study of observable

sensation

mentally represent the world and

and

observations

as

memory,

solving
Concerned

and subjective elements of experience

Functionalism (William James) - focused
behavior

such

perception,

combine to form experience

o Mind functions by combining objective

its

(1860)

sensations and perceptions

Wilhelm
Wundt
First
psychology

on

and

solving
Perception are more than sum of

perception

influence on thinking and problem

examine ones thoughts and feelings

We should rely on rational thought and
introspection

on

awareness, decision making

Existentialism
stresses

selffree

choice and personal responsibility

Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Psychodynamic - Neoanalysts focus
more on conscious choice and selfdirection than psychoanalysis
Karen Horney
Erik Erikson

Perspective

on

Learning-

Social

Cognitive
People modify and create their

environment
Observation
social-cognitive
school

of

theory

psychology

in

a
the

behaviorist tradition that includes

cognitive

factors

explanation

and

in

of

behavior; formerly termed social

o

learning theory
Sociocultural the view that focuses
on

the

roles of ethnicity,

gender,

culture, and socioeconomic status in

behavior and mental processes.

Diversity within Psychology
o Ethnicity
Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps

o
o
o

research evidence
Do not oversimplify
Do not overgeneralize
Apply critical thinking to all areas of

life
The Scientific Method
o Formulate a research question
o State the hypothesis - a specific
that

is

tested

through

on multicultural mental health

Richard Suinn Asian American

study
Representative

psychologist

generalization of findings
Random sample - each

population has equal chance of selection

Stratified
sample - subgroups are

represented proportionally
Volunteer bias - bias represented by

culturally biased
Lillian Comas Diaz edits journal

studies

mental

among Asian Americans

Gender
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

studying

Studied as a guest student at

Harvard

(men

only)

and

completed the PhD requirements

because of her sex.

Harvard

only)

but

Calkins

declined in protest. She went on

to become president of APA.
Mary Salter Ainsworth (19131999) Groundbreaking work on
attachment in children

people

who

allow

member

volunteer

of

to

participate
Case Study - gather information about

to investigate rarities
Survey - used to collect information that

cannot be observed directly

Sources of inaccuracies in case studies

Gaps and factual inaccuracies in memory

Sources of inaccuracies in surveys

offered her a PhD from Radcliffe

(womens

samples

individuals or small groups; sometimes used

but was not granted the degree

from evidence
Consider alternative interpretations of

health and identity development

o

research
o Test the hypothesis
o Draw conclusions based on findings
o Publish research
o Replicate study
Sample - segment of population
Population - entire group targeted for

school segregation
Jorge Sanchez (1906-1972)

show how intelligence tests are

of arguments
Be cautious in drawing conclusions

processes

Latino American, among first to

statement about behavior or mental

Clark - known for research on

researcher on memory
Principles of Critical Thinking
o Be skeptical
o Insist on evidence
o Examine definitions of terms
o Examine the assumptions or premises

the

prediction

Elizabeth Loftus - contemporary

Inaccurate

recall

and

(misrepresentations)

social

desirability

Bias in both case study and survey

social desirability
Naturalistic
Observation
subjects

in

their

natural

observe

o
o
o

environment;

Unobtrusive measure
Correlation - Mathematical
determining

purposes of the study and the nature

method

relationship

and

of

between

variables
o Expresses strength and direction of

of the treatments
Confidentiality
Deception
Debriefing - to explain the purposes

relationship between variables

o Does not prove cause and effect
Experimental Method - Demonstrates

methods

of

completed

procedure to a participant
Ethics of Research with Animals
o Animals are used when research
o

cause and effect through scientific method

o Independent variable - a condition in a

cannot be carried out with humans

Animals may be harmed, only when:
there is no alternative, and
benefits of the research justify
the harm

scientific study that is manipulated so

o

that its effects may be observed

Dependent variable - a measure of an
assumed effect of an independent

variable
experimental groups in experiments,
groups

whose

members

obtain

the

treatment
control groups in experiments, groups
whose

members

do

not

obtain

the

Chapter 2

Neurons - receive and pass messages ; cell

body, dendrites, axon and axon terminals

Glial cells cells that nourish and insulate
neurons, direct their growth, and remove

the cell body of a neuron, that receive

treatment, while other conditions are held

constant
placebo a bogus treatment that has the

appearance of being genuine

blind in experimental

terminology,

unaware of whether or not one has received

a treatment
double-blind study a study in which
neither the subjects nor the observers know

human

welfare

and

insulates

axons,

facilitating

transmission of neural impulses

Afferent neurons - neurons that transmit
messages from sensory receptors to the
spinal cord and brain. Also called sensory
neurons
Efferent neurons neurons that transmit

dignity,

messages from the brain or spinal cord to

scientific

muscles and glands. Also called motor

integrity
Ensure no harm will come to

subjects
Informed consent

branching structures called terminal buttons

Myelin a fatty substance that encases
and

individual

impulses from other neurons

Axon a long, thin part of a neuron that
transmits impulses to other neurons from

who has received the treatment

Ethics of Research with Humans
o Ethical review committee and ethical
standards
Promote

waste products from the nervous system

Dendrites rootlike structures, attached to

participants

neurons
Neural impulse

discharge of a nerve cell, or neuron

Polarize to ready a neuron for firing by

the

electrochemical

agreement to participate in research

creating an internal negative charge in

after receiving information about the

relation to the body fluid outside the cell

membranes

Resting potential the electrical potential

appears to play a role in schizophrenia;

across the neural membrane when it is not

Pleasure,

voluntary

responding to other neurons

Depolarize to reduce the resting potential

memory

of a cell membrane from about 70 millivolts

movement,

learning,

schizophrenia,

Parkinsons disease)
Norepinephrine a

neurotransmitter

toward zero
Action potential the electrical impulse

whose action is similar to that of the

that provides the basis for the conduction of

role

a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron

Firing - conduction of neural impulse along

neurotransmitter
o Accelerates

the length of a neuron

Threshold - incoming messages reach a

strength at which neuron will fire

All-or-None principle the fact that a

neuron

fires

an

impulse

of

the

same

hormone epinephrine and that may play a

heart

linked

to

Excitatory
rate,

affects

activity

levels,

learning and remembering

= mania, = Mood disorders,

depression, bipolar disorder

Serotonin

a
neurotransmitter,

strength whenever its action potential is

deficiencies of which have been linked to

triggered
Refractory period a phase following

affective disorders, anxiety, and insomnia

o = Eating disorders, alcoholism,
o

to messages from other neurons and will not

in

the

transmission

of

neural

behavior
Gamma-amniobutyric acid (GABA) - an
inhibitory neurotransmitter that apparently

or cell body of another neuron

Neurotransmitters chemical substances
involved

depression, aggression, insomnia

Emotional
arousal,
attention,
learning, sleep, important in social

fire
Synapse a junction between the axon
terminals of one neuron and the dendrites

depression

eating,

firing during which a neuron is less sensitive

in

helps calm anxiety (low levels = depression)

Endorphins neurotransmitters that are

impulses from one neuron to another

Synaptic
vesicles
contain

composed of amino acids and that are

neurotransmitters in the axon terminals

Receptor site a location on a dendrite of

pain
o

May be connected to indifference to

pain
Runners high
Occur naturally within the brain and

functionally similar to morphine; inhibit

a receiving neuron tailored to receive a

neurotransmitter
Reuptake

reabsorped
Excitatory neurons - cause other neurons

bloodstream
Nerves a bundle of axons from many

to fire
Inhibitory

neurons
Central nervous system the brain and

neurons from firing

Acetylcholine (Ach) a neurotransmitter

spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system the part of

neurotransmitters

neurons

prevent

are

other

that controls muscle contractions ( =

the

paralysis, = Alzheimers disease)

Hippocampus a part of the limbic system

somatic nervous system and the autonomic

of the brain that is involved in memory

formation
Dopamine a neurotransmitter that is
involved in Parkinsons disease and that

nervous

system

consisting

of

the

nervous system
Somatic nervous system the division of
the

peripheral

nervous

system

that

connects the central nervous system with

sensory receptors, skeletal muscles, and the

surface of the body

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) the

enabling a computer to generate a three

that regulates glands and activities such as

injects

heartbeat,

and

bloodstream and assesses activity of parts

dilation of the pupils

o Sympathetic the branch of the

of the brain according to the amount of

respiration,

that

is

digestion,

most

active

during

glucose they metabolize

Magnetic Resonance

throughout the body

Spinal reflex a

in turn, indicate brain activity

Functional MRI (fMRI) a form of MRI that
enables researchers to observe the brain

while it works by taking repeated scans

Thalamus
o Relay station for sensory stimulation
to the cortex and in the functions of

simple,

unlearned
o

detecting

rain

waves

by

means

placed on the scalp

Experimenting with the brain
o Assessing damage from trauma and

brain
Electrical probes to stimulate parts of

hypothalamus a great deal of control

that passes a narrow X-ray beam through

the

measures structure

rays

from

various

that

angles,

over many body functions.

Limbic System
o central in the control of emotional
responses.
involved in memory and emotion
4 structures
Amygdala
Hippocampus
regions of the limbic cortex
septal area
Midbrain
o
o

or CT scan) a method of brain imaging

and

regulation, and circadian rhythms.

controls the pituitary gland by
secreting hormones, which gives the

the brain
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT

head

systems
processes and transmits movement

thirst, emotions, body temperature

measuring the current between electrodes

disease
Intentionally damaging parts of a

sends

and sensory information

Hypothalamus
o responsible for controlling hunger,

of

also

then sends this information to other

reflexes
White matter axon bundles that carry
messages from and to the brain
Electroencephalograph (EEG) a method

sleep and attention

The cerebral cortex

information to the thalamus, which

neural segments that are involved in spinal

reflect

that reveal shifts in the flow of blood, which,

only two neurons

Gray matter the grayish neurons and

the

waves to cause the brain to emit signals

response to a stimulus that may involve

Imaging

the

reserves of energy
Parasympathetic the branch of

receptors to the brain to muscles and glands

into

person in a magnetic field and uses radio

restore the bodys reserves of energy

Spinal cord a column of nerves within the

of

tracer

and anxiety, that spend the bodys

spine that transmits messages from sensory

radioactive

method of brain imaging that places a

processes (such as digestion) that

emotional responses, such as fear

the ANS that is most active during

(PET

scan) a method of brain imaging that

Tomography

division of the peripheral nervous system

ANS

dimensional image
Positron Emission

associated with interpreting visual

and visual information.

Hindbrain
o Medulla an oblong area of the

stimuli and information

The primary visual

hindbrain involved in regulation of

smallest region of the brain that acts

as a sort of relay station for auditory

an inability to identify colors, and

medulla to the cerebellum and helps

coordinate movement on each side

trouble recognizing words.

Temporal Lobe
o Hearing and Auditory functions
o also the location of the primary
auditory cortex which is important

of the body.
Cerebellum a part of the hindbrain

for

involved in muscle coordination and

balance
comprised of small lobes and

movements as well as basic

facets

of

memory

o
o

control of movement
The red nucleus and substantia nigra

with the basal ganglia

Reticular Activation System a part of

thinking

language
Cerebral Cortex
o Surface of cerebrum
Corpus Callosum
o Connects two hemispheres
Occipital Lobe
o Vision

formation

perception,

and

language

information

such

as

pressure, touch, and pain

Somatosensory Cortex - the section
of

cortex

in

which

sensory

stimulation is projected. It lies just

behind the central fissure in the

parietal lobe.
Frontal Lobe
o Damage to the frontal lobe can lead
to

changes

in

sexual

habits,

socialization, and attention as well as

o

for

the

skills.
Parietal Lobe
o associated with processing tactile

the brain involved in attention, sleep, and

arousal
Cerebrum
o Responsible

with

sensory

learning.
Basal Ganglia
o group of large nuclei that partially
surround the thalamus.
These nuclei are important in the

the

of memories.
Damage : problems with memory,
speech

and

of the midbrain have connections

auditory and visual systems

It
is
involved
in
the
motor

and

language we hear
The hippocampus is also located in

associated

ear, sensory nerves, and the

of

sounds

portion of the brain is also heavily

balance system of the inner

coordination

interpreting

the temporal lobe, which is why this

receives information from the

from the retinas of the eyes

Damage : can cause visual problems
such as difficulty recognizing objects,

involved in respiration, attention, and

receives and interprets information

heartbeat and respiration

Pons a structure of the hindbrain
sleep and dreaming; connects the

cortex

and

increased risk-taking.
associated
with
motor

skills,

cognition,
o

and

reasoning,

higher

level

expressive

language
Motor Cortex - the section of cortex
that lies in the frontal lobe, just
across the central fissure from the
sensory cortex; neural impulses in

the

motor

cortex

are

linked

to

muscular responses throughout the

body.
Association areas
o Not primarily involved in sensation or
o

motor activity
Responsible for learning, thought,

More likely than right-handed people

in

gifted

split-brain operations
o Examples
of

memory and language

Association areas in frontal lobe
o Responsible for executive functions

functions
o

would

transfer to

to understand or produce language

Wernickes Area
o Temporal Lobe
o Wernickes aphasia
Impairs ability to comprehend
speech and think of words to

involve

endocrine gland that regulates various body

functions
Gland an organ that secretes one or more
chemical substances such as hormones,

saliva, or milk
Pituitary gland the gland that secretes
growth

hormone,

prolactin,

antidiuretic

hormone, and other hormones; master

gland
o
Growth

in

bones,

regulates
lower

regulates
and

maternal

mammals

production

of

and

milk

in

women
Vasopressin inhibits production of

urine when body fluids are low

Oxytocin stimulates labor
pregnant

probability of language problems and

muscles,

glands
Prolactin
stimulates

hormone

of

behavior

but

Left-brained
o Logical and intellectual
Right-brained
o Intuitive, creative and emotional
Hemispheres do not act independently
o Functions overlap and they respond

certain health problems

that

release them directly into the bloodstream

Hormone a substance secreted by an

growth

simultaneously
Left-handed
o Somewhat
greater-than-average

functions

sudden neural discharges

Endocrine system the bodys system of

speak slowly and laboriously

brain

ductless glands that secrete hormones and

express own thoughts

Angular Gyrus
o Translates
visual
into
auditory
information
o Damage impairs reading ability
Brocas Area
o Frontal Lobe
o Production of speech
o Brocas aphasia
Understand
language

brain

with the other

epilepsy temporary disturbances
of

right

hemisphere
aphasia a disruption in the ability

two

hemisphere to communicate

and differ
o Left hemisphere contains language
o

and

phenomenon
Caused by inability of one

decision making)
Two hemispheres of the brain mirror

functions for nearly all people

If damaged before age 13, speech

musicians,

mathematicians
Origins of handedness
o Genetics
Severe cases of epilepsy may require

(problem solving, making plans, and

artists,

women,

connected

maternal behavior
Pineal gland
o Secretes melatonin
o Helps regulate sleep-wake cycle
o May affect onset of puberty
Thyroid gland
o Produces thyroxin
o Affects bodys metabolism

in

with

Hypothyroidism

Thyroxin

deficiency
Hyperthyroidism

thyroxin
Cretinism - stunted growth and
mental

Too

retardation;

stress;

psychology that studies the ways in which

thyroxin

deficiency in children
Adrenal glands
o Located above the kidneys
o Adrenal cortex secretes
steroids

much

situations
Cortical steroids
increase resistance to stress
promote muscle development
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
Helps
arouse
body
in
threatening situations

Steroids
o increase muscle mass,
o heighten resistance to stress,
o increase bodys energy supply
Anabolic steroids
o enhance athletic prowess
o connected
with
self-confidence,
aggressiveness, memory function
Testosterone
o produced by testes (smaller amounts
o

amounts from testes)

o female sex characteristics
Darwins Theory of Evolution
o Struggle for existence
Competition
for
o

resources
Natural selection
Adaptive genetic
aid in survival
Mutations

category

processes

and

of

biological

sapienshumansmake up one species

Instinct a stereotyped pattern of behavior
identical

among

members

of

isolation
Heredity
o Transmission of traits from parent to

offspring, based on genes

Genetics
o Subfield of biology that

studies

heredity
Behavioral Genetics
o Focuses on contributions of genes to

behavior
Gene a basic unit of heredity, which is

found at a specific point on a chromosome

Chromosome - a microscopic rod-shaped
body in the cell nucleus carrying genes that
transmit hereditary traits from generation to
generation;

humans

normally

have

46

chromosomes
DNA acronym for deoxyribonucleic acid,
the substance that forms the basic material

from adrenal gland)

male sex characteristics

Estrogen and progesterone

o produced
by
ovaries

are

Helps arouse body in threatening

behavior
Species

mental

selection

species, even when they are reared in

secretes

epinephrine and norepinephrine

with

nearly

stored sugar; makes more energy

connected

natural

that is triggered by a particular stimulus and

development; cause liver to release

and

who are capable of interbreeding; homo

cortical
muscle

available in emergency
Adrenal
medulla

adaptation

classification consisting of related organisms

increase resistance to
promote

Sudden changes in genes

Evolutionary psychology the branch of

of chromosomes; it takes the form of a

(smaller

double helix and contains the genetic code

Genes regulate development of specific
traits
o Some traits are determined by one
o

to

same

variations

gene
Other traits are polygenic - referring
traits

that

are

influenced

by

combinations of genes
Genotype ones genetic makeup, based
on the sequencing of the nucleotides we
term A, C, G, and T

Phenotype ones actual development and

characterized by mental deficiency, a broad

appearance, as based on ones genotype

and environmental influences

Nature the inborn, innate character of an

organism
Nurture

environmental

sum

factors

total
that

of
affect

the
an

organism from conception onward

Sex chromosomes the 23rd pair of
chromosomes,

the

whose

genetic

material

determines the sex of the individual

Down syndrome a condition caused by
an extra chromosome on the 21st pair and

face, and slanting eyes

Kinship studies - Focus on presence of
traits and behavior patterns in people who

are, or are not related biologically

Monozygotic (MZ) twins twins that
develop from a single fertilized ovum that
divides

in

two

early

in

prenatal

development; MZ twins thus share the same

genetic code; also called identical twins

Dizygotic (DZ) twins twins that develop

from two fertilized ova and who are thus as
closely related as brothers and sisters in
general; also called fraternal twins