IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NUCLEAR SCIENCE, VOL. 60, NO.

3, JUNE 2013

2247

New Developments of Near-UV SiPMs at FBK

Tiziana Pro, Alessandro Ferri, Alberto Gola, Member, IEEE, Nicola Serra, Alessandro Tarolli, Nicola Zorzi, and
Claudio Piemonte, Member, IEEE

AbstractA thorough characterization of a novel silicon photomultiplier technology for near-ultraviolet (near-UV) light detection, called NUV-SiPM, is presented. It features a peak detection
efficiency of more than 30% in the region between 380 and 400
nm, mainly limited by the fill factor. An accurate electric field engineering allows to have excellent noise properties, with a dark count
rate of less than 200 kHz/mm at maximum efficiency and 20 C.
In addition, a breakdown voltage uniformity better than 100 mV at
the wafer level and a temperature dependence of 25 mV C were
obtained. We coupled a
mm device to a
mm
LYSO scintillator obtaining an energy resolution of 10% FWHM
with 511-keV gamma ray irradiation and a coincidence resolving
time between two identical detectors of 210-ps FWHM. A detailed
description of these results is presented in the paper.
Index TermsLow-level light detection, near ultraviolet light detection, silicon photomultipliers.

I. INTRODUCTION

N the past years, increasing efforts on SiPM technology

have been made in FBK and many other research institutes [1][3] to improve their performance. There is clear evidence that SiPMs are going to replace progressively photo-multiplier tubes (PMTs) in a wide range of applications, including
the scintillation light readout in medical imaging, high energy
physics and astrophysics [4][8]. In particular, there is a very
strong interest in using SiPMs for next-generation MR-compatible, time-of-flight PET machines [5]. The foremost advantages
of a SiPM over a PMT are low operating voltage ( 100 V),
insensitivity to magnetic fields, compactness, robustness, and
higher photon detection efficiency.
Specific applications require specific peak sensitivity. In
positron emission tomography (PET), SiPMs are usually
coupled to scintillators whose emission spectrum is in the
blue-NUV region: LYSO:Ce has a peak emission at 420
nm (blue-near-UV) and LaBr :Ce at 380 nm (near-UV) [9].
However, new types of scintillators are appearing with light
emission in the green-red region as Ce:GAGG whose peak is
at 550 nm. It is then important to enhance the photon detection
efficiency (PDE) in the wavelength region of interest.
The first technology developed at FBK and all its subsequent
upgrades had peak sensitivity in the green. Although it was not

Manuscript received December 21, 2012; revised March 21, 2013; accepted
April 10, 2013. Date of publication May 23, 2013; date of current version June
12, 2013. The research leading to these results has partially received funding
from the European Union Seventh Framework[FP7/2007-2013] under grant
agreement FP7-241711.
The authors are with Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Trento 38050, Italy (e-mail:
piemonte@fbk.eu).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TNS.2013.2259505

centered on the LYSO emission spectrum, excellent timing and

energy resolution were reported [10][14]. In order to further
improve the performance with this scintillator, efforts have been
recently devoted to the production of a SiPM specifically designed for near-UV detection (NUV-SiPM). A first prototype
with a peak PDE of about 30% at 410 nm (50 m cell, 42%
of fill factor) was proposed in [15]. However, this technology
suffered from a high dark count rate (DCR) and after-pulsing
probability.
At present, according to the literature, some technologies potentially working in the near-UV (350400 nm) can be found,
though in some cases the maximum PDE value is not centered
in this range [16][22]. Moreover, a direct comparison of the
technologies is not straightforward, since the extraction of the
different parameters determining the performance can be complex and methods are not aligned.
With the present work, we introduce a new version of NUV
SiPM, which is specifically conceived for reaching the maximum efficiency at 380400 nm. Measurements show a PDE
higher than 30% in this wavelength range, mainly limited by the
fill factor (42%), whereas DCR is lower than 200 kHz/mm at
the maximum efficiency at 20 C. Those parameters are among
the most competitive ones reported in literature. In addition,
we have achieved an excellent breakdown voltage uniformity
as well as a low temperature dependence.
II. TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN
The absorption of near-UV photons in silicon is very superficial. This implies that the dopant profiles must be very shallow
to enhance quantum efficiency. In SiPMs, this is not the only aspect to be considered, since also the avalanche triggering probability plays an important role [1]. For UV light, the carriers
starting the avalanche in an n+/p junction (FBK original technology) are mainly the holes, whose triggering probability is
. On
lower than for the electrons at any given overvoltage
the contrary, in a p+/n junction, the avalanche is started mainly
by electrons enhancing the efficiency for UV light. Electrons
provide also a much faster triggering probability increase with
: for a given cell structure (size and depletion width), this
allows us to obtain the same PDE at lower overvoltage, which
implies a lower gain and, thus, a lower correlated noise. Hence,
a p+/n junction for UV light provides better performance both
in terms of efficiency and excess noise factor.
NUV-SiPMs were fabricated following these considerations
and through an accurate electric field engineering. A variety
of layout configurations were produced, ranging from
mm to
mm and with different cell sizes. For simmm will be presented in this
plicity, only results from
paper, but they are representative of all the other layouts. The

0018-9499/$31.00 2013 IEEE

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Fig. 1.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NUCLEAR SCIENCE, VOL. 60, NO. 3, JUNE 2013

plots of
m .

mm SiPMs with a cell size of

m and

attention is focused on the

m cell size having a nominal fill factor of 42%. In particular cases, also results obtained
with a
m cell size (22% fill factor) will be shown for
comparison.
Furthermore, results from another FBK recent technology,
called RGB-SiPM (red-green-blue), with sensitivity peaked in
the visible part of the light spectrum, will be used for comparison [2]. This technology has been recently released as an upgrade of the original n+/p technology.
III. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
In the following paragraphs, we present a set of measurements that gives a complete picture of the device performance.
The first one is the reverse and forward current-voltage ( )
measurement in dark condition at controlled temperature. The
second test is the pulse analysis, again in dark condition and at
controlled temperature. This procedure is thoroughly described
in [23]. The third step is the PDE measurement under continuous light illumination. Finally, the SiPM is coupled to a LYSO
scintillator for both energy and timing resolution tests.
A. IV Characterization
In Fig. 1, the - of a
mm SiPM with a
m
cell size is shown. For comparison, the current of a device with
a
m cell size is also plotted.
Both devices feature a breakdown voltage,
, of 25.65 V.
The postbreakdown current, instead, has a different behavior.
The 50- m cell has a parabolic current growth until 30 V, then
it diverges very quickly. As will be shown in the following paragraph, correlated noise is the main cause for this steep increase.
On the other hand, the 25- m cell SiPM shows a lower current, not diverging after breakdown. The lower current is given
by both a smaller gain (smaller cell capacitance) and a lower
primary noise (due to the lower fill factor). The absence of divergence is due to a smaller correlated noise thanks to the lower
gain.
values, extracted from - measurements over a population of 414 SiPM (the number of devices contained in a wafer),

Fig. 2. Histogram of

for all the SiPMs contained in a wafer.

are reported in the histogram depicted in Fig. 2. The voltage step

in measurements is 0.1 V and the bin width is selected accordingly. Notably,
falls in a range between 25.5 and 25.9
V for all devices. The mean value is 25.65 V with a standard
deviation of only 0.07 V. Excellent breakdown voltage uniformity is therefore achieved with this technology. This is a considerable benefit for application with a high number of channels,
like PET [5].
In order to analyze the breakdown voltage temperature dependence, measurements were repeated between 20 C
and 50 C. In Fig. 3,
versus temperature is plotted. In the
same graph, also the
dependence of the first NUV technology released in 2011 [15] is shown for comparison. The
linear fit on the experimental data of the new NUV-SiPM (red
squares) reveals a temperature coefficient of 25.8 mV C. In
the older technology (blue circles), the coefficient is 27 mV C
up to 20 C and then it increases to 75.4 mV C. The double
slope is determined by the change with temperature of the depletion width at the breakdown voltage. This phenomenon has
been studied in [24]. A low
temperature coefficient is extremely important to alleviate the requirements on the cooling
system.
Postbreakdown current was analyzed in order to understand
the dark count temperature dependence, similarly to what is
done in [2]. At a constant
, the reverse current
is
proportional to the DCR of the SiPM. In Fig. 4, the Arrhenius plot of the SiPM current at 3-V overvoltage is shown.
According to the ShockleyReadHall theory [25], thermal
generation is proportional to
(where
0.56 eV is half the energy gap,
is the Boltzmann
constant, and is the temperature in K). In the fit shown in
Fig. 4, the activation energy is 0.49 eV, which is very close to
. Thus, in the temperature range from 20 C to 40 C,
the main mechanism underneath the eh pair generation is
thermal generation. In the previous NUV release, the same
parameter was found to be 0.31 eV, i.e., with a significant
tunneling component. For temperatures higher than 40 C, the
diffusion component starts to be dominant. Diffusion mechanism follows an
trend, thus its decrease

PRO et al.: NEW DEVELOPMENTS OF NEAR-UV SiPMs AT FBK

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Fig. 3. Breakdown voltage temperature dependence of a

mm SiPM
(50- m cell) from the new NUV technology (red squares). Linear regression
mm SiPM of the first NUV release (blue circles)
line is superposed. A
[15] is also shown.

Fig. 5. Value of the quenching resistor as a function of the temperature.

Fig. 6. Gain pulse

and gain current
versus overvoltage for two
mm SiPMs with 50- m and 25- m cell size, respectively.

Fig. 4. Arrhenius plot of the current at 3-V overvoltage for a

SiPM.

mm NUV

with temperature is steeper than for ShockleyReadHall

generation.
Finally, the value of the quenching resistor was calculated
from the forward - . In Fig. 5, it is plotted as a function of
the temperature. It decreases with temperature, from 1.4 M at
20 C to 1 M at 50 C. The trend is almost linear with a
negative coefficient of about 6
C.
B. Pulse Analysis in Dark
As previously mentioned, an automatic procedure, described
in [23], was developed to extract a number of parameters in dark
condition such as gain, primary dark rate and correlated noise
probability.
Considering the gain, two values are defined:
, calculated
as the area of single dark pulses divided by the amplifier gain
and the electron charge;
, calculated as the ratio between the
reverse current and the primary dark count rate multiplied by the
elementary charge. In case of no correlated noise (no after-pulse,

AP, nor optical crosstalk, CT), the two values must be identical
and correspond to the number of carriers generated during a cell
discharge.
In Fig. 6,
and
for the
mm SiPM with a 50- m
cell are plotted as a function of the overvoltage at 20 C. For
comparison,
and
for the 25- m cell are also shown. In
the first case,
progressively diverges from
at increasing
, reaching a value three times larger at 5 V. This indicates
that an extra charge is associated to each primary dark event,
increasing the reverse current of the device. It can be attributed
to CT and AP events. This extra charge can be quantified by the
excess charge factor (ECF): ECF
[23].
for the 25- m cell is lower than for the 50- m one since
its capacitance is smaller. Notably, in this case, the ECF is
very close to one in all the considered voltage range, implying
both low CT and AP. A low correlated noise, i.e., a low excess
noise factor, is very important in applications such as low
energy gamma spectroscopy. This result strongly pushes the
technology towards new developments aimed to increase the
fill factor of small cells.
Dark count rate was also extracted and compared with the first
NUV version (Fig. 7). Solid lines correspond to primary dark

2250

Fig. 7. Dark count rate as a function of the overvoltage of the new NUV technology (50- m cell size), compared to the first NUV (same cell size). The plot
shows also the DCR of a 25- m cell of the new NUV at 20 C. Solid and dashed
lines represent the primary and total dark count rate, respectively.

count rate (DCR) at 0.5 photoelectron (p.e.) threshold level.

It is the Poisson rate extracted from the exponential fit of the
histogram of the time delay between consecutive dark pulses.
Dashed lines represent the total dark rate, DCR at 0.5 p.e. It
includes DCR, AP and delayed crosstalk (DeCT) [23], which is
one of the two components of optical crosstalk. In particular, in
DeCT, the photon emitted by the avalanche in one cell is absorbed in the nondepleted region beneath a neighboring one,
generating a carrier able to reach by diffusion the active region. The correlated event produced in the second cell is delayed in time because the diffusion process can take several
nanoseconds. On the contrary, in direct crosstalk (DiCT), the
carrier is generated by the photon in the depletion region of
the second cell, so the correlated event happens in coincidence.
DiCT cannot be evaluated from the time delay histogram.
Fig. 7 shows that the DCR is very low: less than 200 kHz at
room temperature and at maximum overvoltage for the 50- m
cell. It is more than one order of magnitude lower than the previous NUV production [15]. This was achieved thanks to both
an optimized electric field shape and a new gettering procedure.
The DCR scales by a factor of 16 from 20 to 20 C, halving
every 10 C.
The total rate increases faster with the overvoltage because
it includes also AP and DeCT, whose probability increase with
overvoltage. At the maximum overvoltage, DCR is about three
times larger than DCR. The ratio DCR DCR is close to the excess charge factor, meaning that the AP and DeCT represents
the largest fraction of the correlated noise. It has to be noted
that, in this technology, DeCT is not separated from AP in the
time delay histogram probably because the exponential decay
time constants of the two phenomena are similar. This behavior
is different from what is reported in [23], which refers to an n+/p
junction, where the two contributions were clearly distinguishable. For this reason, the correlated noise determined by AP and
DeCT will be considered as a single class of events named delayed correlated pulses. The probability is calculated as the ratio
of the number of delayed correlated events to the total one. Fig. 8
shows this parameter as a function of the overvoltage. It is about

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NUCLEAR SCIENCE, VOL. 60, NO. 3, JUNE 2013

Fig. 8. Delayed correlated pulse probability as function of overvoltage.

Fig. 9. DCR versus threshold level at different over-voltages of the NUV technology.

50% at 4-V overvoltage, where the PDE has almost reached

its maximum for NUV light (see next paragraph). The dashed
line in the plot is a second-order polynomial fit serving as an
eye-guide.
In Fig. 7, also DCR and DCR for a
mm SiPM with a
25- m cell are plotted. DCR is lower compared with the 50- m
cell since the fill factor is lower: in the range 25
it is below
70 kHz. Moreover, it is evident that the delayed correlated event
contribution is negligible, even at 8
, as it was expected
from the low ECF.
DiCT was extracted from the
versus threshold plot,
shown in Fig. 9, for the 50- m cell at three different values of
. The threshold value was normalized to the amplitude of
the single cell pulse. The DiCT probability, calculated as the
ratio between the number of events between 1.5 and 2.5 and
those between 1.5 and 0.5 p.e. threshold [23], is 1% at 2.35
and 7% at 4.35
, which is much smaller compared
with delayed correlated event probability.
It is also interesting to note that the NUV-SiPM DiCT probability is almost three times smaller compared with the RGB one.
The main reason is that the optical crosstalk events in the first

PRO et al.: NEW DEVELOPMENTS OF NEAR-UV SiPMs AT FBK

Fig. 10. Photon detection efficiency as a function of the wavelength for NUV
) and RGB technologies (at 4.5
). Devices have
(at three different
exactly the same cell layout: 50- m size and 42% fill factor.

technology are mainly determined by holes, which have a lower

triggering probability.
C. Photo-Detection Efficiency Measurement
PDE was measured under continuous low-level light illumination. The measurement was performed between 360 and 900
nm with a step of 10 nm using a monochromator. Our current
setup does not allow the PDE characterization at lower wavelengths to cover the whole NUV spectrum. The light intensity
was determined with a calibrated photodiode. Neutral filters
with known attenuation factors were used to reduce the number
of photons impinging on the device under test. In order to facilitate the measurement, getting rid of optical crosstalk, single-cell
SiPMs having exactly the same size and layout of the devices
reported in the paper were used. In order to suppress also AP
contributions, the photon count rate was not calculated as the
total rate at 0.5 p.e., but it was extracted from the Poisson fit
of the pulse arrival time distribution (similarly to the procedure
used in dark pulse analysis). DCR was subtracted from the light
count rate.
In Fig. 10, the PDE as a function of the wavelength, at different overvoltages, is shown for a 50- m cell. For comparison,
the PDE of a RGB-SiPM biased at 4.5
is also plotted. The
two devices have the same layout: 50- m cell and a 42% fill
factor. In this current version, the fill factor is mainly limited
by the use of a mask aligner lithography, which has a relatively
large minimum feature size.
The peak PDE of the NUV-SiPM is reached at 390 nm with
a maximum value of 32% at 4.5 V overvoltage. Given the 42%
fill factor, the product of the quantum efficiency times the triggering probability is about 0.76, which is an excellent result for
near-UV light. Above 450 nm, the PDE rapidly decreases because photons are mainly absorbed beyond the high-field region,
where hole triggering starts to be dominant. The RGB-SiPM
technology, on the other hand, peaks in the 450650-nm range,
reaching a maximum value of 31% at 570 nm [2]. Oscillations
on PDE curves are determined by the interference in the stack
of dielectric layers on top of the silicon substrate. They can

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Fig. 11. Photon detection efficiency as a function of overvoltage for NUV tech380 nm.
nology and RGB technology at

be eliminated or modified by changing the thicknesses of the

layers.
The two SiPM technologies are complementary with respect
to the peak sensitivity wavelength, so that the most suitable one
can be selected according to the specific application.
The PDE as a function of the overvoltage at 380 nm is plotted
in Fig. 11, for the two technologies. As far as the NUV-SiPM is
concerned, the PDE at 380 nm increases quite rapidly, according
to the electron triggering probability, and approaches saturation
at 4-V overvoltage. On the contrary, the RGB-SiPM has a much
lower PDE at 380 nm, slowly increasing with
, since it is
proportional to the hole triggering probability.
A fair comparison between technologies cannot take into account only a single parameter. Depending on the application,
the best achievable performance will be a compromise between
PDE at the wavelength of interest, primary noise and correlated noise. For this reason, plots showing their interdependence
are very important. In Fig. 12, the primary dark noise, DCR, is
plotted as a function of the PDE at 380 nm. The NUV reaches
much higher PDE than the RGB SiPM and, for any given PDE
value, it has a much lower noise.
Considering the signal-correlated noise, CT and AP deteriorate the photon number resolution of the detector, with respect
to the pure Poisson statistics, by the excess noise factor (ENF).
This can be the dominant noise source in many photon counting
applications, including -ray spectroscopy, in which SiPMs are
used for the readout of the scintillation photons. If CT is the
only source of correlated noise, the ENF is equal to the ECF
[26]. For the AP, on the other hand, the ENF is always smaller
than the ECF and the two values are equal at low gain only.
Therefore, at a first approximation, the ECF can be considered
an upper bound for the ENF and can give an estimate for the
total amount of correlated noise.
The ECF as a function of the PDE at 380 nm is also shown in
Fig. 12. Again, we can see that the NUV technology has a very
favorable behavior in the NUV region, having an ECF below
1.5 almost up to the maximum efficiency.
This plot shows that the ECF, and thus the correlated noise,
starts diverging when the PDE has almost reached saturation.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NUCLEAR SCIENCE, VOL. 60, NO. 3, JUNE 2013

Fig. 12. Primary dark count rate and excess charge factor versus photon detection efficiency at 380-nm wavelength for NUV and RGB technologies (cell size
C.
of 50 m).

Fig. 13. Energy spectrum obtained from a

mm LYSO crystal irradiated with a

mm SiPM coupled to a
Na source.

To this end, the 50- m size can be considered an upper limit

because for larger cells (with large gain) the correlated noise
would diverge before reaching the maximum triggering probability.
D. Energy and Timing Resolution With Scintillator
Finally, a
mm SiPM was coupled to a
mm
LYSO scintillator and irradiated with gamma rays from a Na
source. The energy spectrum was extracted from the integral of
SiPM signals in response to the incident radiation. In Fig. 13, the
energy spectrum is plotted in the range 200 keV1.5 MeV, at 5
V overvoltage. The 511 keV and 1.27 MeV peaks are clearly
visible. The plot was obtained correcting the SiPM signal for
the nonlinearity due to the limited number of cells compared to
the number of photons. The energy scale is reconstructed from
the position of the two photopeaks corresponding to the two
gamma rays emitted by the Na source. The 511-keV peak is
fitted with two Gaussian curves, one related to the photopeak,
and the other, centered at lower energy, related to the Lutetium
escape peak (see as an example [27]).

Fig. 14. Energy resolution for a NUV-SiPM, coupled to a LYSO scintillator at

20 C.

Fig. 15. Coincidence resolving time of two NUV-SiPMs, each one coupled to
mm LYSO scintillator. Temperature is varied between 20 C
a
and 20 C.

Fig. 14 shows the energy resolution measured at different

overvoltages at 20 C. It is found to be 10% FWHM in a very
wide range of bias conditions, namely between 2 and 5 V. It
is worth noting that similar results were found with the RGBSiPM technology. In both cases, the resolution approaches the
limit of the LYSO scintillator.
We also measured the timing properties of this technology
with scintillator. The methodology is thoroughly described in
[11][13]. The coincidence resolving time is measured between
two identical detectors, each one composed of a
mm SiPM
coupled to a
mm LYSO scintillator. The radioactive
source is placed between the two in head-on configuration. The
pick-off time of each SiPM is determined with the leading edge
discrimination method after a signal baseline compensation to
get rid of the SiPM noise [12]. Fig. 15 shows the coincidence
resolving time as a function of the overvoltage. Similarly to the
energy resolution, the best value is reached at about 5 V. Notably, the timing performance does not depend on the temperature since the dark rate of this technology is low. The minimum
coincidence resolving time is about 210-ps FWHM. This value

PRO et al.: NEW DEVELOPMENTS OF NEAR-UV SiPMs AT FBK

is excellent but slightly worse than the 175 ps measured on a

RGB-SiPM with the same geometry. We are still investigating
the reason of this difference.

IV. CONCLUSION
A novel SiPM technology designed for near-UV light has
been developed at FBK (NUV-SiPM) and its in depth characterization is presented in this paper. A peak PDE of more than 30%
is reached at 390 nm on a
m cell, with a 42% fill factor.
PDE is higher than 25% in the range between 360 and 450 nm,
thus making the detector suitable for near-UV detection. Very
low DCR, around 200 kHz/mm at 20 C, is shown at the mentioned PDE, which is a remarkable improvement compared to
previous technologies and it is very competitive with respect to
other commercial devices. The excess charge factor, accounting
for the correlated noise, reaches a value around 1.5 at maximum
PDE, and it is mainly determined by after-pulses.
The same measurements repeated on a SiPM featuring a
m cell size showed a remarkably lower correlated
noise. The excess charge factor is close to unity up to 7 V
overvoltage. At this bias level, the triggering probability for
electrons, and consequently the PDE in the near-UV region, has
already reached its maximum. This is a very important advantage of tiny cells. The limit of the actual technology combined
with small cell size is the poor fill factor (22% on a
m
cell). FBK is strongly committed to the development of a new
cell border structure allowing high fill factor ( 50%) with very
small cells (down to
m ). The first significant results
in this direction have already been obtained in an upgrade of
the RGB-SiPM technology.

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