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Reactor Engineering Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400085, India
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 29 October 2013
Received in revised form
31 January 2014
Accepted 16 April 2014
Unlike forced circulation systems, natural circulation systems need to be started from the state of zero
ow. Literature study shows that under low ow conditions, the velocity eld near the wall is signicantly modied by secondary convection currents particularly during diabatic conditions. In view of this,
the applicability of conventional forced convection wall constitutive laws to these systems has been
investigated both theoretically and experimentally. First the applicability of conventional wall constitutive laws derived from steady state forced convection experiments is examined. Next, the results of
experimental investigations carried out in a rectangular natural circulation loop are presented. Finally, a
new correlation for wall friction factor is proposed for ow in horizontal pipes under diabatic conditions.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Natural circulation
Single-phase
Wall constitutive laws
Friction factor
1. Introduction
The applicability of conventional forced ow constitutive
laws for wall friction factor derived from steady state experiments carried out under adiabatic conditions to natural circulation loops have been questioned since long. Creveling et al.
(1975) and Damerell and Schoenhals (1979) attributed this to
the presence of three-dimensional effects such as ow reversals,
non zero cross stream velocities and non axisymmetric velocity
proles in natural circulation loops. Vijayan and Austregesilo
(1994), Cammarata et al. (2003) and Fichera and Pagano
(2003) observed that friction factor was different than that
predicted by the conventional forced convection laws. Further,
these studies concluded that the friction factor for natural circulation loops was higher than that given by constant property
forced ow friction factor correlations. Huang and Zelaya (1988)
studied natural circulation in a rectangular natural circulation
loop and observed that the conventional forced convection
friction factor correlation predict the loop behavior well if the
form losses for the bends are accounted. Similar observation was
made by Vijayan (2002). Based on the above discussions, it is
difcult to arrive at any conclusion.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: knaveen@barc.gov.in, navbarc@yahoo.co.in (K. Naveen).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2014.04.011
0149-1970/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
106
U
W
Nomenclature
A
Cp
D
fF
fD
g
Grf
Grm
H
K
L
NG
P
Pr
Q
Raf
Re
T
t
Subscripts
b
bulk
D
Darcy
f
lm
lm
lm
h
heater
in
inlet
L
laminar
out
outlet
ss
steady state
T
turbulent
w
wall
Greek symbols
coefcient of thermal expansion, K1
uid viscosity, Pa s
kinematic viscosity, m2/s
density, kg/m3
b
m
n
r
Table 1
Friction factor correlations for natural circulation loops compiled from literature.
Reference
Type of
loop
Correlation
Creveling
Toroidal
et al. (1975)
fF
Widmann
Toroidal
et al. (1989)
fF
Vijayan and
Austregesilo
(1994)
Cammarata
et al. (2003)
and Fichera
and Pagano
(2003)
151 Re1:17 Laminar flow
0:88 Re0:45 Turbulent flow
(1)
17:98 Re0:91 Laminar flow
0:49
Turbulent flow
0:76 Re
(2)
22:26
Closed
f
rectangular D
Re0:6744
8 0:5
Closed
< 2 Re
rectangular fF
36 Re0:9
: 0:5
2 Re
uncertainty
mass ow rate, kg/s
(8)
For VHHC fD
15:4528
Re0:7143
(9)
(3)
Power < 900 W
900 W Power 1600 W
power > 1600 W
For VHVC fD
Re0:338
(10)
(4)
For HHVC fD
0:8025
(5)
4:2415
Re0:617
(11)
(6)
(7)
10
0.01
Table 2
Friction factor correlations for pipe ow under diabatic conditions.
Reference
Type of ow
Correlation
Deissler
(1951)
Test (1968)
Laminar
Laminar
fF 16=Re1=0:89mb =mw
Allen and
Eckert
(1964)
Morcos and
Bergles
(1975)
Tam and
Ghajar
(1997)
0.1
100
1000
107
Turbulent
(12)
0:2
fF 0:0791Re
0:25
0:25
mb =mw
15 1=15
Not specied
fF 16=Re 1 0:195Ra0:15
f
(Re < 400)
Laminar
transition
10000
Reynolds Number
fF 16=Remb =mw m
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
m 1.650.013Pr0.84Gr0.17
The range of applicability of the correlation
is 1100 < Re < 7400; 17,100 < Gr < 95,600;
1.25 < mb/mw < 2.40 and 6 < Pr < 36.
h
ic
fF 1 Re=ab mb =mw m
(17)
(b) Even for the same experimental facility, the friction factor
depends upon the heater and cooler orientation. Hence, a
meaningful comparison can be made only by comparing the
experimental data for facilities having similar heater and
cooler orientations.
(c) While for some loops, the experimentally observed value of
friction factor is higher than that obtained from conventional
constant property forced convection friction factor laws for
others it is lower. Hence, their utility as a general purpose
correlation appears to be limited.
The inability of conventional friction factor correlations applicable for forced circulation under adiabatic conditions to predict
pressure drop under diabatic conditions was recognized long back
by Deissler (1951). Deissler (1951) proposed a correction factor for
friction factor under diabatic conditions long back. The proposed
correction factor was based on the ratio of uid viscosity at the wall
temperature and that at bulk mean temperature. Since then, a
number of correlations have been proposed. A summary of these
correlations is given in Table 2.
During their experimental investigations on pressure drop under combined forced and free convection in horizontal heated
tubes, Morcos and Bergles (1975) showed that the heat transfer
coefcient and the friction factor under mixed convection conditions are well above the values obtained using constant property
pure forced ow correlations. Bishop et al. (1980) studied the effect
of buoyancy on friction factor in laminar upward ow in cylindrical
tubes and noted that friction factor is dependent upon the wall heat
ux. They observed that for aiding ow the frictional drop is higher
than that predicted by conventional laws applicable for forced ow.
Experimental investigations by Tam and Ghajar (1997) showed that
the value of fully developed friction factor increased with increase
in the heating rate for a xed Reynolds number. Owing to the
presence of secondary ow, the effect of heating on friction factor
was signicant in the laminar and transition regions. In the turbulent region, the secondary ow effect is suppressed by the turbulent motion and hence no increase in friction factor was
observed in this region. Further, it was observed that heating stabilizes the ow and delays the ow transition from laminar to
transition region. The correlation proposed by them is similar to
that proposed by Deissler (1951) and Test (1968) except that the
exponent in viscosity correction factor is dependent on Gr number.
Based on their experimental investigations with ow under
variable heat transfer conditions, Meyer et al. (2008) showed that
Meyer
Laminar and
et al. (2008) turbulent
fL
"
0:42 #
16
Re
Grf
1 2:81 104
Re
Pr
(19)
(20)
(21)
ft 0:01249Re=20006
(22)
108
of 15 thermocouples were installed at different locations to measure the uid temperature. Out of these 15 thermocouples, 9
thermocouples measure the uid temperature in the main loop.
Four thermocouples measure the uid temperature at inlet and
outlet of each cooler. One thermocouple, having 2 mm diameter is
installed in the middle of expansion tank and another thermocouple is installed in the pipe connecting the expansion tank and
main loop. Thermocouples are calibrated in the range of 0e150 C.
A differential pressure transmitter (DPT) with a measuring accuracy
of 0.25% of the span is used to measure the differential pressure
across a 1060 mm long section (including heater) in bottom horizontal tube. The DPT is calibrated in the range of 15 to 15 mm of
water column. The negative range is provided to measure the ow
in the reverse direction. All the temperature and pressure drop data
being measured using thermocouples and DPT respectively, are
recorded using a data logger. These are recorded at a frequency of
1 Hz using Graphtec make digital recorder. The heater power is
measured using a wattmeter and is recorded manually.
3.2. Experimental procedure
The purpose of these tests was to study loop behavior under
steady state conditions. It is well known that natural circulation
systems take a long time to reach steady state. In fact Creveling
et al. (1975) and Vijayan et al. (2007) observed waiting periods
close to 2 h before ow stabilized. In the present study also, it was
observed that loop takes long time to reach the steady state. The
main loop uid exchanges energy with the expansion tank and it
may take very long time to reach a steady state. This may introduce
signicant errors at low powers. To overcome this problem, in the
present study, a new approach has been adopted for experimental
investigations at power less than 200 W. The loop is rst operated
109
UDT
q
U 2 Tout U 2 Tin
(24)
UW
UDT UP
DT
W
P
(25)
UW 2UW
Q
Cp DTh
(23)
where Q is the heater power, Cp is the specic heat of the uid and
DTh is the temperature rise across the heater. The heater inlet and
outlet temperatures are measured using mineral insulated 0.5 mm
diameter chromel-alumel (K-Type) thermocouples. The signals
were compensated for the DC drift.
When designing a test plan, compromises must always be made
because of the conicting requirements and practical limitations.
The present case is no exception. In the present case, single point
thermocouples have been used for measurement of average heater
inlet and outlet temperatures. This has been done to keep the
(26)
110
Table 3
Summary of experimental runs.
10
Power range
Cooler secondary ow rate
Cooler secondary water temperature
40 We700 W
5 lpm
30.4 (2) C
Present experiment
Vijayan et al. (1994) - 6 mm loop
Vijayan et al. (1994) - 11 mm loop
Vijayan et al. (1994) - 23.2 mm loop
Vijayan et al. (2007) - 26.9 mm loop
Mousavian et al. (2004) - 40 mm loop
Misale et al. (2007) - 4 mm loop
Bau and Torrance (1981) - 25 mm loop
10
Re =1.96(Gr /N )
fF
(27)
Substitution of the values for p and b from Eq. (27) into Eq. (5)
gives
(
Ress
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
(28)
50
Temperature ( C)
40
0.015
30
0.010
Legends
Secondary water inlet temperature
Loop average temperature
o Mass flow rate
0.005
0.000
26
28
30
32
34
20
10
0
36
Run No.
Fig. 4. Experimentally obtained loop mass ow rates for heater power input of 200 W.
Ress
Re =0.1768(Gr /N )
The loop steady state behavior has been predicted using the
model described in Naveen et al. (2011) and Naveen (2013). In all
the numerical simulations, the expansion tank is modeled as a time
dependent volume exchanging only swell and shrinkages in the
main loop uid. The details of the mathematical model are presented in Naveen et al. (2011) and Naveen (2013). The pressure in
the expansion tank is assumed to be constant. In all the simulations,
the wall heat transfer coefcients have been evaluated using the
correlations proposed by Meyer et al. (2008) and Aicher and Martin
(1997) for horizontal and vertical pipe sections respectively. For the
present loop, the cooler secondary heat transfer coefcient has
been evaluated using SiedereTate correlation for laminar heat
transfer which gives a value of 450 W/(m2K) for a coolant ow rate
of 5 lpm at 30.4 C.
Vijayan (2002) argued that the following conventional friction
factor correlations applicable for forced circular pipes predict the
loop behavior reasonable well
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Grm/NG
Fig. 5. Comparison of steady state natural circulation ow for loops having horizontal
heater and horizontal cooler.
(29)
fD 53:788=Re0:77
(30)
10000
111
10000
Present experiment
0.44844
Ress=0.2285(Grm/NG)
Ress
Ress
1000
100
100
1000000
1E7
1E8
1E9
10
1E7
1E10
Grm/Ng
1E8
1E9
1E10
Grm/Ng
(a)
10000
Ress
1000
100
1000000
1E7
1E8
1E9
1E10
Grm/Ng
h
i1=
fF fL 1 fTt =fL 6:4 6:4
(31)
(b)
Fig. 6. Comparison of experimental data with theoretical correlation given by Eq. (28)
(a) With local losses and (b) Without local losses.
1000
Ress
10000
100
Present experiment
Model predictions
10
1000000
1E7
1E8
1E9
1E10
Grm/NG
Fig. 8. Comparison of experimentally obtained loop mass ow rate with model predictions made using friction factor given by Eq. (27).
112
where
0.050
0.045
(32)
Model prediction
Present experiment
0.040
15 1=15
fL 16=Re 1 1:56Ra0:15
f
(33)
(34)
ft 0:03862Re=20006
(35)
h
i
fTt fT 1 ft =fT 2
12
0.035
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
10000
Ress
1000
100
10
1E7
1E8
1E9
1E10
Grm/NG
Fig. 9. Comparison of experimentally obtained loop mass ow rate with model predictions made using proposed friction factor correlation.
Model predictions
Present experiment
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
ff
16 Re; 0:079 Re0:25
Vertical pipes
(36)
113
Experiment
Model Prediction using friction factor,
2
0.25 2 0.5
f = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Model Prediction using proposed
friction factor correlation
-1
-2
-3
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
Time (s)
Fig. 13. Model prediction for heater power of 220 W.
1.5
1
0
-1
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
Model prediction
Experiment
-1.0
-1.5
-2
-2.0
-3
1000
2000
3000
Time (s)
Fig. 12. Model prediction for heater power of 120 W.
4000
1000
2000
3000
Time (s)
4000
5000
Fig. 14. Comparison of ow initiation transient for 220 W heater power predicted
using proposed friction factor correlation with experimentally observed behavior.
114
40
2
20
THeater (K)
THeater (K)
20
-20
-20
-40
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
-40
1000
6000
1200
1400
1600
Fig. 15. Model prediction for 500 W heater power input and 10
temperature.
C
heat sink
phase natural circulation loop having horizontal heater and horizontal cooler. The loop consists of a 30 mm I.D. and 1.3 mm wall
thickness pipe having 1112 mm width and 988 mm height. The
vertical legs and the four bends are made of SS and the cooler and
heater are made of Cu. The heater and cooler lengths are respectively 960 mm and 900 mm. The heater in the experimental test
facility consists of a nichrome wire evenly wound on the outside of
the Cu tube. The cooler is a double pipe heat exchanger having
outer tube I.D. of 102 mm (wall thickness 3 mm). Water and Glycol
mixture having 40 C freezing temperature is used as coolant on
the cooler secondary side and cooler secondary ow rate was
maintained at 0.61 kg/s throughout the experiments. In numerical
simulations for this loop, the cooler secondary heat transfer coefcient is calculated using SiedereTate equation (with viscosity
correction) and the coolant temperature has been assumed to be
constant. To start with the loop is assumed to be lled with water at
30 C temperature and the uid velocity is assumed to be zero. In
present study the loop behavior was simulated using the 1-D model
described in Naveen (2013). Figs. 15e19 compare the model predictions made using the conventional friction factor correlation
2000
2200
2400
Fig. 17. Model prediction for 500 W heater power input and 10
temperature.
2600
2800
C
heat sink
with that proposed in the present study (Eq. (36)). It is seen from
these gures that the frequency of ow reversal increases when
predicted with proposed friction factor correlation. The frequency
of oscillation predicted by the proposed friction factor correlation is
qualitatively more closer to that observed experimentally. However, both the correlations predict unstable behavior for all the heat
sink temperatures.
6. Conclusions
Numerical and experimental investigations have been carried
out to study the effect of constitutive laws for wall friction on loop
steady state behavior. The results presented in this paper have
helped in gaining more insight into the role of friction factor in
single-phase natural circulation loop dynamics. The following insights are obtained from this study:
1. The role of constitutive laws for wall friction derived from
steady state forced convection experiments in predicting the
steady state single-phase loop dynamics has been investigated.
Literature survey fails to give a satisfactory answer for the
40
40
2
0.25 2 0.5
fD = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Proposed correlation (Eq. 34)
0.25 2 0.5
fD = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Proposed correlation (Eq. 34)
20
THeater (K)
20
-20
-20
-40
1000
1800
Time (s)
Time (s)
THeater (K)
0.25 2 0.5
fD = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Proposed correlation (Eq. 34)
0.25 2 0.5
fD = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Proposed correlation (Eq. 34)
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
Time (s)
Time (s)
Fig. 16. Model prediction for 500 W heater power input and 0
temperature.
-40
1000
C
heat sink
Fig. 18. Model prediction for 500 W heater power input and 20
temperature.
C
heat sink
115
Appendix A
40
2
0.25 2 0.5
fD = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Proposed correlation (Eq. 34)
Table A.1
Steady state data for different experimental runs.
THeater (K)
20
-40
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
Time (s)
Fig. 19. Model prediction for 500 W heater power input and 30
temperature.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Power
(W)
Tavg
( C)
DT
across
heater
Cooler
secondary
inlet water
temp. ( C)
Loop
mass ow
rate, W
(kg/s)
Expanded
uncertainty
(%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
40
40
40
40
40
60
60
60
60
60
60
80
80
80
80
80
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
150
150
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
240
250
300
300
300
300
310
350
350
350
350
350
370
400
400
400
400
400
400
450
450
450
500
500
500
500
550
580
600
600
600
30.2
33.8
34.4
35.0
34.3
35.2
33.0
35.0
35.9
36.1
35.7
36.0
34.0
36.7
37.2
36.9
35.2
34.4
38.2
37.5
38.2
38.7
38.3
39.7
41.0
40.5
42.0
41.2
42.7
42.1
42.0
43.3
43.1
42.8
43.0
44.8
45.0
46.9
47.8
47.6
47.2
45.3
48.6
49.5
49.7
49.6
49.9
51.0
50.3
45.2
51.1
51.4
51.8
51.6
53.3
53.5
54.1
55.7
55.9
55.4
55.9
57.6
55.3
52.6
57.2
55.6
1.4342
1.4711
1.5253
1.5297
1.5730
2.1932
2.2543
1.8718
1.7793
2.0457
1.9573
2.3941
2.5779
2.2727
2.3923
2.2680
2.7226
2.0448
2.9057
2.5976
2.5623
2.8447
2.6670
2.8864
2.9467
3.4244
3.3936
3.0938
3.4404
3.6244
3.3797
3.3393
3.2227
3.3297
3.3010
3.6313
3.4195
4.1354
3.9700
3.7023
3.9723
4.3887
3.9987
4.0067
4.0433
4.1893
3.8537
4.3020
4.3496
3.4048
4.3146
4.3157
4.4427
4.3483
4.7307
4.5150
4.3203
4.7217
4.7800
4.8467
4.8250
4.9253
5.4259
4.6342
5.2366
4.5838
27.0
30.4
31.2
31.6
31.1
29.7
28.3
30.8
31.1
31.6
31.3
30.3
28.3
31.0
31.5
31.2
27.6
27.8
31.1
31.0
31.1
31.6
31.2
30.5
31.4
28.1
29.7
30.2
31.1
30.4
30.9
30.9
31.0
31.6
31.1
30.9
31.0
30.8
30.9
31.4
31.3
28.3
30.7
31.5
31.0
31.0
31.1
30.3
29.9
25.6
31.1
31.3
30.9
31.3
31.2
31.1
31.3
31.6
30.6
30.7
31.4
31.2
28.8
25.6
30.0
28.0
0.0067
0.0065
0.0063
0.0063
0.0061
0.0065
0.0064
0.0077
0.0081
0.0070
0.0073
0.0080
0.0074
0.0084
0.0080
0.0084
0.0088
0.0117
0.0082
0.0092
0.0093
0.0084
0.0090
0.0124
0.0122
0.0140
0.0141
0.0155
0.0139
0.0132
0.0142
0.0143
0.0148
0.0144
0.0145
0.0158
0.0175
0.0174
0.0181
0.0194
0.0181
0.0169
0.0209
0.0209
0.0207
0.0200
0.0217
0.0206
0.0220
0.0281
0.0222
0.0222
0.0215
0.0220
0.0227
0.0238
0.0249
0.0253
0.0250
0.0247
0.0248
0.0267
0.0256
0.0310
0.0274
0.0313
12.63
12.60
12.58
12.59
12.58
8.46
8.45
8.48
8.51
8.46
8.43
6.42
6.44
6.48
6.39
6.42
5.50
5.36
5.19
5.28
5.21
5.14
5.18
3.66
3.64
3.36
2.85
2.95
2.79
2.83
2.83
2.75
2.75
2.74
2.74
2.34
2.31
2.00
1.98
2.08
1.95
2.67
1.84
1.82
1.81
1.77
1.76
1.75
1.73
1.92
1.66
1.68
1.58
1.65
1.57
1.57
1.49
1.40
1.46
1.46
1.37
1.47
1.36
1.48
1.35
1.49
-20
2.
Run
no.
C
heat sink
problem at hand. Based on the curve tting, different correlations have been obtained for different heater and cooler orientations. These correlations give different values of friction factor
for the same Reynolds number. This brings out the inherent
inadequacy of the above approach used for deriving friction
factor correlations from steady state experimental data. The
above approach based on straight line t clearly fails to bring out
the physics of the process and correlation derived in this way are
highly specic to the loop and the heater and the cooler orientation. Hence, these correlations have a limited applicability.
The steady state experimental investigations have been carried
out in a natural circulation loop having horizontal heater and
horizontal cooler orientation. These investigations clearly show
that the conventional wall constitutive laws derived from constant property steady state forced convection experimental data
fail to predict the observed experimental behavior.
The present experimental data for HHHC orientation is in
agreement with the experimental data reported in the literature
for the same heater and cooler orientations.
The experimental results show that loop mass ow rate increases with increase in heater power. Model predictions made
using conventional friction factor laws overpredict the mass
ow rate at all heater power inputs.
A new correlation has been proposed for friction factor in horizontal pipes under mixed convection. The proposed correlation
is a modication of friction factor correlations proposed by
Morcos and Bergles (1975) and Meyer et al. (2008). The proposed correlation predicts the loop steady state behavior quite
well. However, similar correlations need to be developed for
ow through vertical pipes also for predicting the loop dynamics more accurately.
The proposed friction factor correlation has been used to predict
the transient behavior of the loop addressed by Vijayan et al.
(2001, 2007). A comparison of model prediction made using
the conventional forced ow friction factor correlation with the
proposed correlation shows that the proposed correlation predicts the loop behavior more closely.
Model application to the loop addressed by Misale et al. (2011)
show that the proposed correlation predicts the loop behavior
better than that predicted using conventional forced ow friction factor correlation. However, the model predictions show
unstable behavior for all heat sink temperatures while the
experimental observations show stable loop behavior for a heat
sink temperature of 10 C.
116
Power
(W)
Tavg
( C)
DT
across
heater
Cooler
secondary
inlet water
temp. ( C)
Loop
mass ow
rate, W
(kg/s)
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
600
600
600
620
640
700
700
59.8
59.9
60.3
58.1
58.0
63.4
63.3
5.1940
5.3243
5.1737
5.2991
5.2691
5.5520
5.7153
31.5
30.7
31.6
29.1
29.1
31.4
30.9
0.0276
0.0269
0.0277
0.0280
0.0290
0.0301
0.0293
Expanded
uncertainty
(%)
1.26
1.30
1.27
2.26
2.45
1.18
1.21
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