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Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116

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Progress in Nuclear Energy


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Investigations on single-phase natural circulation loop dynamics.


Part 2: Role of wall constitutive laws
Kumar Naveen a, *, Kannan N. Iyer b, J.B. Doshi b, P.K. Vijayan a
a
b

Reactor Engineering Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400085, India
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 29 October 2013
Received in revised form
31 January 2014
Accepted 16 April 2014

Unlike forced circulation systems, natural circulation systems need to be started from the state of zero
ow. Literature study shows that under low ow conditions, the velocity eld near the wall is signicantly modied by secondary convection currents particularly during diabatic conditions. In view of this,
the applicability of conventional forced convection wall constitutive laws to these systems has been
investigated both theoretically and experimentally. First the applicability of conventional wall constitutive laws derived from steady state forced convection experiments is examined. Next, the results of
experimental investigations carried out in a rectangular natural circulation loop are presented. Finally, a
new correlation for wall friction factor is proposed for ow in horizontal pipes under diabatic conditions.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Natural circulation
Single-phase
Wall constitutive laws
Friction factor

1. Introduction
The applicability of conventional forced ow constitutive
laws for wall friction factor derived from steady state experiments carried out under adiabatic conditions to natural circulation loops have been questioned since long. Creveling et al.
(1975) and Damerell and Schoenhals (1979) attributed this to
the presence of three-dimensional effects such as ow reversals,
non zero cross stream velocities and non axisymmetric velocity
proles in natural circulation loops. Vijayan and Austregesilo
(1994), Cammarata et al. (2003) and Fichera and Pagano
(2003) observed that friction factor was different than that
predicted by the conventional forced convection laws. Further,
these studies concluded that the friction factor for natural circulation loops was higher than that given by constant property
forced ow friction factor correlations. Huang and Zelaya (1988)
studied natural circulation in a rectangular natural circulation
loop and observed that the conventional forced convection
friction factor correlation predict the loop behavior well if the
form losses for the bends are accounted. Similar observation was
made by Vijayan (2002). Based on the above discussions, it is
difcult to arrive at any conclusion.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: knaveen@barc.gov.in, navbarc@yahoo.co.in (K. Naveen).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2014.04.011
0149-1970/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The importance of friction factor in predicting single-phase


natural circulation loop dynamics can hardly be overemphasized.
Ambrosini and Ferreri (2000) showed that accurate and reliable
prediction of loop stability and transient behavior is strongly
dependent on the choice of friction factor. Naveen et al. (2011)
observed that the conventional forced convection correlations fail
to predict the dynamic and stability behavior of these loops well.
Therefore, it is important to gain more insight into the role of these
constitutive laws in loop dynamics. The issue becomes more
important because of lack of any unanimous opinion on the
applicability of conventional wall constitutive laws in published
literature. This provides the necessary motivation for further investigations in the eld. In the present study, experimental investigations have been carried out in a rectangular natural
circulation loop and a new correlation is proposed for friction factor
in horizontal pipes.
2. Previous research on wall constitutive laws for natural
circulation loops
Different correlations have been reported by different researchers based on their experimental investigations in natural
circulation loops. Some of these correlations compiled from literature are given in Table 1.
Vijayan and Austregesilo (1994) showed that steady state mass
ow rate in a uniform diameter single phase natural circulation
loop can be expressed as

106

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116

U
W

Nomenclature
A
Cp
D
fF
fD
g
Grf
Grm
H
K
L
NG
P
Pr
Q
Raf
Re
T
t

area of cross section, m2


specic heat at constant pressure, kJ/kg K
pipe diameter, m
fanning friction factor, dimensionless
Darcys friction factor, dimensionless
gravitational acceleration, m/s2
lm Grashof number, D3r2bg(TweTf)/m2
modied Grashof number, D3r2bgQH/(Am3Cp)
loop height, m
molecular thermal conductivity (W/m K)
length, m
geometric parameter, dimensionless
perimeter (m)
Prandtl number, CP m/K
total heat input rate, W
Rayleigh number (D3bgDTlm/na)
Reynolds number, DW/Am
temperature, K
time, s

Subscripts
b
bulk
D
Darcy
f
lm
lm
lm
h
heater
in
inlet
L
laminar
out
outlet
ss
steady state
T
turbulent
w
wall
Greek symbols
coefcient of thermal expansion, K1
uid viscosity, Pa s
kinematic viscosity, m2/s
density, kg/m3

b
m
n
r

Table 1
Friction factor correlations for natural circulation loops compiled from literature.
Reference

Type of
loop

Correlation


Creveling
Toroidal
et al. (1975)

fF

Widmann
Toroidal
et al. (1989)

fF

Vijayan and
Austregesilo
(1994)
Cammarata
et al. (2003)
and Fichera
and Pagano
(2003)


151 Re1:17 Laminar flow

0:88 Re0:45 Turbulent flow

(1)


17:98 Re0:91 Laminar flow
 0:49
Turbulent flow
0:76 Re

(2)

22:26
Closed
f
rectangular D
Re0:6744
8  0:5
Closed
< 2 Re
rectangular fF
36 Re0:9
:  0:5
2 Re

Ress CGrm =NG

uncertainty
mass ow rate, kg/s

For HHVC Ress 7295Grm =NG 0:4196

(8)

The following correlations have been deduced using the scaling


laws dened by Vijayan and Austregesilo (1994) for Darcys friction
factor from the experimental ts for different heater and cooler
orientations:

For VHHC fD

15:4528
Re0:7143

(9)

(3)
Power < 900 W
900 W  Power  1600 W
power > 1600 W

For VHVC fD

Re0:338

(10)

(4)

For HHVC fD

0:8025

(5)

where Grm D3r2bgQH/(Am3Cp), NG Lt/D, C (2/p)r and


r 1/(3  b) with p and b obtained from a Fanning friction factor
correlation of the form, fF p/(Ress)b. On a logelog scale, Eq. (5)
represents a straight line. Eq. (5) is universally applicable to
non-uniform diameter loops also. Therefore, the results have been
expressed in terms of these dimensionless numbers. Vijayan et al.
(2001) carried out experimental investigations in a rectangular
single-phase natural circulation loop with different combinations
of heater and cooler orientations. They investigated the loop
steady state and stability behavior for Vertical Heater Horizontal
Cooler (VHHC), Vertical Heater Vertical Cooler (VHVC), Horizontal
Heater Vertical Cooler (HHVC) and Horizontal Heater Horizontal
Cooler (HHVC) congurations. Naveen et al. (2011) obtained the
following ts for the experimental data reported in Vijayan et al.
(2001):

4:2415
Re0:617

(11)

A comparison of friction factors summarized above is shown


in Fig. 1. In addition, two forms of conventional forced convection friction factors are also plotted. These are: a law with
smooth transition between laminar and turbulent ow
q
fD 64=Re2 0:316=Re0:25 2 and a law taking friction
factor as maximum of that given by Poiseuille and Blasius laws
for laminar and turbulent ows. These approaches are used in
simulation of natural circulation loops to avoid unrealistic oscillations in numerical simulations. The rst approach was recommended by Ambrosini and Ferreri (2000) who investigated
the effect of Blasius law for turbulent forced ow, Churchill
(1977) correlation and a law with smooth transition between
q
laminar and turbulent ow fD
64=Re2 0:316=Re0:25 2

For VHHC Ress 0:40879Grm =NG 0:43751

(6)

on single-phase natural circulation loop stability. The second


approach was used by Vijayan et al. (1995) during their investigation on single-phase natural circulation loop dynamic
behavior. It is seen from Fig 1 that there is a considerable scatter
in the friction factors. The following conclusions can be drawn
based on the discussions till now:

For VHVC Ress 1:4092Grm =NG 0:3757

(7)

(a) The friction factors derived from experimental data are


highly loop specic.

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116

Darcy's Friction Factor

10

Creveling et al. (1975) - Eq. (1)


Widmann et al. (1989) - Eq. (2)
Vijayan and Austregesilo (1994) - Eq. (3)
VHHC - Eq. (9)
VHVC - Eq. (10)
HHVC - Eq. (11)
Max. of 64/Re and 0.316/Re
((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )

0.01

Table 2
Friction factor correlations for pipe ow under diabatic conditions.
Reference

Type of ow

Correlation

Deissler
(1951)
Test (1968)

Laminar

fF 16=Remb =mw 0:58

Laminar

fF 16=Re1=0:89mb =mw

Allen and
Eckert
(1964)
Morcos and
Bergles
(1975)
Tam and
Ghajar
(1997)

0.1

100

1000

107

Turbulent

(12)
0:2

fF 0:0791Re

0:25

0:25

mb =mw



15 1=15
Not specied
fF 16=Re 1 0:195Ra0:15
f
(Re < 400)
Laminar
transition

10000

Reynolds Number

fF 16=Remb =mw m

(13)
(14)

(15)
(16)

m 1.650.013Pr0.84Gr0.17
The range of applicability of the correlation
is 1100 < Re < 7400; 17,100 < Gr < 95,600;
1.25 < mb/mw < 2.40 and 6 < Pr < 36.
h
ic
fF 1 Re=ab mb =mw m

(17)

Fig. 1. Comparison of friction factor given by different correlations.

(b) Even for the same experimental facility, the friction factor
depends upon the heater and cooler orientation. Hence, a
meaningful comparison can be made only by comparing the
experimental data for facilities having similar heater and
cooler orientations.
(c) While for some loops, the experimentally observed value of
friction factor is higher than that obtained from conventional
constant property forced convection friction factor laws for
others it is lower. Hence, their utility as a general purpose
correlation appears to be limited.
The inability of conventional friction factor correlations applicable for forced circulation under adiabatic conditions to predict
pressure drop under diabatic conditions was recognized long back
by Deissler (1951). Deissler (1951) proposed a correction factor for
friction factor under diabatic conditions long back. The proposed
correction factor was based on the ratio of uid viscosity at the wall
temperature and that at bulk mean temperature. Since then, a
number of correlations have been proposed. A summary of these
correlations is given in Table 2.
During their experimental investigations on pressure drop under combined forced and free convection in horizontal heated
tubes, Morcos and Bergles (1975) showed that the heat transfer
coefcient and the friction factor under mixed convection conditions are well above the values obtained using constant property
pure forced ow correlations. Bishop et al. (1980) studied the effect
of buoyancy on friction factor in laminar upward ow in cylindrical
tubes and noted that friction factor is dependent upon the wall heat
ux. They observed that for aiding ow the frictional drop is higher
than that predicted by conventional laws applicable for forced ow.
Experimental investigations by Tam and Ghajar (1997) showed that
the value of fully developed friction factor increased with increase
in the heating rate for a xed Reynolds number. Owing to the
presence of secondary ow, the effect of heating on friction factor
was signicant in the laminar and transition regions. In the turbulent region, the secondary ow effect is suppressed by the turbulent motion and hence no increase in friction factor was
observed in this region. Further, it was observed that heating stabilizes the ow and delays the ow transition from laminar to
transition region. The correlation proposed by them is similar to
that proposed by Deissler (1951) and Test (1968) except that the
exponent in viscosity correction factor is dependent on Gr number.
Based on their experimental investigations with ow under
variable heat transfer conditions, Meyer et al. (2008) showed that

Meyer
Laminar and
et al. (2008) turbulent

The coefcients a, b, c and m are inlet


dependant. For a bell mouth entrance,
the values are given by a 5340, b 0.099,
c 6.32 and m 2.58  0.42Pr2.46Gr0.41
and the range of applicability is 5900 < Re
< 9600; 11,900 < Gr < 353,000; 1.05 < mb/mw
< 1.47 and 8 < Pr < 15. All uid properties
are evaluated at bulk uid temperature.
h
i1=6:4
fF fL 1 fTt =fL 6:4
(18)
where
h
i 1
2
fTt fT 1 ft =fT 2

fL

"

0:42 #
16
Re
Grf
1 2:81  104
Re
Pr

(19)

(20)

fT 0:0791Re0:25 m=mw 0:2

(21)

ft 0:01249Re=20006

(22)

for laminar region, friction factors were on an average 35% higher


than that predicted by Poiseuille equation. Further, it was found
that with a viscosity correction, of the type given by Eqs. (12)e(14),
the predictions improve only by 5%. The increase in friction factor
was attributed by them to the secondary ow effects which could
not be taken into account by the viscosity corrections given by Eqs.
(12)e(14). They noted that secondary ows distort the velocity
prole near the wall in such a way that the gradient near the wall is
much steeper. This gives rise to higher friction factors. Further, the
studies by Tam and Ghajar (1997) and Meyer et al. (2008) show that
the effect of heating on friction factor was signicant only in the
laminar and transition regions. Since the secondary ows distort
the near wall velocity prole in different ways in a horizontal and
vertical section, the frictions factors under diabatic conditions are
expected to be different for vertical and horizontal sections. This
inference is also supported by the friction factor correlations
plotted in Fig. 1. Friction factor correlations plotted in Fig. 1 for
different natural circulation loops are derived from steady state
experimental data. Under steady state conditions, the wall and uid
temperatures are expected to be same throughout the loop except
in heater and cooler provided the insulation heat losses are negligible. For adiabatic pipe sections, the conventional wall constitutive
laws derived from steady state constant property forced convection

108

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116

experiments are applicable. Hence, the increase and decrease in


friction factors as indicated by correlations derived from steady
state natural circulation loop experimental data are mainly because
of changed near wall velocity prole in heater and cooler. Since the
secondary ows distort the near wall velocity prole in different
ways for a horizontal heater and vertical heater, the friction factors
for different heater orientations are also expected to be different.
The same is expected for cooler orientations also. Hence, it is
required to have friction factor correlations based on heater and
cooler orientations. In the present study, the issue of friction factor
for horizontal heater and horizontal cooler has been addressed.
It will be shown later that for the HHHC geometry, very few
experimental data, except that of Mousavian et al. (2004) is available in literature that spans a large variation in Ress. The experimental data reported in Vijayan et al. (2007) shows a large scatter
for Ress values around 1000. Further most experimental data
appear to have a large friction factor (resulting in low Ress) than
that estimated by Vijayan and Austregesilo (1994) using standard
forced convection correlations. It will also be shown later that
forced convection correlations predict unidirectional pulsating
behavior for Vijayans loop (Vijayan et al., 2007) at 220 W while
experimental investigations show bidirectional pulsating behavior.
Numerical experiments on sensitivity of nature of oscillations with
friction factor indicated that a higher friction factor was able to
capture the bidirectional pulsating behavior. Hence, it was decided
to systematically investigate the behavior of these loops. Since, it
is the horizontal heater horizontal cooler orientation which presents a variety of interesting phenomenon; the investigations have
been carried out for horizontal heater and horizontal cooler
conguration.
3. Overview of the experiments
3.1. Description of the experimental loop
The experimental loop consists of a uniform diameter rectangular natural circulation loop made of borosilicate glass (Fig. 2). The
primary loop glass tube has an inside diameter of 26.9 mm and a
wall thickness of 1.65 mm. The loop consists of two heaters and two
coolers. However, only horizontal heater and horizontal cooler
conguration has been investigated experimentally. The length of
the horizontal heater is 665 mm. The heater is made up of 1 mm
diameter nichrome wire evenly wound on the outside of the glass
tube. The heater power is varied with the help of a dimmerstat and
is measured using a wattmeter, which had an accuracy of 2.5 W.
The loop consists of two coolers. One of the coolers is at the highest
elevation and the other is in the right vertical section. The length of
the horizontal cooler is 1000 mm and the length of the vertical
cooler is 800 mm. The cooler is a tube-in-tube type heat exchanger
with outer tube having inside diameter of 43 mm and wall thickness of 1.5 mm. The coolant ow to the secondary side of the cooler
is provided from an overhead tank. To measure the cooler secondary mass ow rate, a rotameter is installed in the cooler secondary line. The rotameter has a measuring range of 0e10 lpm. The
cooler secondary ow is adjusted using a globe valve mounted in
this line. An expansion tank, made of borosilicate glass, is provided
in the loop at the highest elevation to take care of swell and
shrinkages in loop inventory during the transient. The expansion
tank consists of a 97.3 mm internal diameter and 100.3 mm outer
diameter cylindrical tank having a shell length of 280 mm. The tank
is connected to the main loop through a 20 mm outer diameter and
18 mm inner diameter tube of 252 mm length.
Temperature of the uid in the main loop is measured at
different locations, as shown in Fig. 3, using mineral insulated
0.5 mm diameter chromel-alumel (K-type) thermocouples. A total

Fig. 2. Experimental facility.

of 15 thermocouples were installed at different locations to measure the uid temperature. Out of these 15 thermocouples, 9
thermocouples measure the uid temperature in the main loop.
Four thermocouples measure the uid temperature at inlet and
outlet of each cooler. One thermocouple, having 2 mm diameter is
installed in the middle of expansion tank and another thermocouple is installed in the pipe connecting the expansion tank and
main loop. Thermocouples are calibrated in the range of 0e150  C.
A differential pressure transmitter (DPT) with a measuring accuracy
of 0.25% of the span is used to measure the differential pressure
across a 1060 mm long section (including heater) in bottom horizontal tube. The DPT is calibrated in the range of 15 to 15 mm of
water column. The negative range is provided to measure the ow
in the reverse direction. All the temperature and pressure drop data
being measured using thermocouples and DPT respectively, are
recorded using a data logger. These are recorded at a frequency of
1 Hz using Graphtec make digital recorder. The heater power is
measured using a wattmeter and is recorded manually.
3.2. Experimental procedure
The purpose of these tests was to study loop behavior under
steady state conditions. It is well known that natural circulation
systems take a long time to reach steady state. In fact Creveling
et al. (1975) and Vijayan et al. (2007) observed waiting periods
close to 2 h before ow stabilized. In the present study also, it was
observed that loop takes long time to reach the steady state. The
main loop uid exchanges energy with the expansion tank and it
may take very long time to reach a steady state. This may introduce
signicant errors at low powers. To overcome this problem, in the
present study, a new approach has been adopted for experimental
investigations at power less than 200 W. The loop is rst operated

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116

109

obstruction of ow to minimum. Though thermocouples TE-1


(Temperature Element e 1) and TE-2 are closest to the heater,
thermocouples TE-3 and TE-13 have been taken as representative
of heater inlet and outlet average temperatures. This is because of
the reason that some stratication is expected at the exit of the
heater and cooler sections and because of the proximity of TE-1 and
TE-2 to the heater, these thermocouples may not give the mixed
mean temperature. Thermocouples TE-3 and TE-13 are located in
the left and right vertical adiabatic legs. It is assumed that the
thermocouples TE-3 and TE-13 give the mixed mean temperature.
The uncertainty of measurements has been evaluated according
to recommendations made by Bell (2001). The measurement uncertainty has been estimated for each test point separately and has
been taken into account when analyzing the results. Each experiment is repeated at least thrice. The uncertainty of measurement
associated with temperature measurement is evaluated according
to Type A method of evaluation (EA-4/02, 1999). The Type A
evaluation of standard uncertainty is the method of evaluating the
uncertainty by statistical analysis of a series of observations. In the
present study, the temperature has been estimated by taking mean
of 300 readings recorded at 1 Hz. These measurements have been
recorded after the ow has stabilized. The standard deviation and
uncertainty in measurement has been obtained for 95% condence
interval. Uncertainty in measurement of DT is given by

UDT

q
U 2 Tout U 2 Tin

(24)

The uncertainty in calculated mass ow rate is given by

UW
UDT UP

DT
W
P

(25)

The expanded uncertainty of measurement in loop mass ow


rate is given by the following equation
Fig. 3. Location of main thermocouples.

UW 2UW

at a power higher than that at which steady state data is to be


collected. This increases the temperature of uid in expansion tank
also. The power is then lowered to the desired value. Since the uid
temperature in the expansion tank is now higher than that of the
uid in the main loop, the steady state is reached much faster than
in the previous case. In all the experiments the cooler secondary
mass ow rate was kept 5 lpm and the average cooler secondary
inlet temperature was 30.4  C.
3.3. Data reduction and uncertainty analysis
The steady state mass ow rate is estimated from the measured
data using the following equation

Q
Cp DTh

(23)

where Q is the heater power, Cp is the specic heat of the uid and
DTh is the temperature rise across the heater. The heater inlet and
outlet temperatures are measured using mineral insulated 0.5 mm
diameter chromel-alumel (K-Type) thermocouples. The signals
were compensated for the DC drift.
When designing a test plan, compromises must always be made
because of the conicting requirements and practical limitations.
The present case is no exception. In the present case, single point
thermocouples have been used for measurement of average heater
inlet and outlet temperatures. This has been done to keep the

(26)

Factor of 2 has been taken for a coverage probability of 95%.


Uncertainty in power measurement is the biggest contributor to
overall uncertainty in loop mass ow rate measurement. Experimental investigations were carried out with different values of
heater power ranging from 40 W to 700 W. Since the purpose of the
experimental investigations is to investigate the loop behavior
under low ow conditions, for heater power less than 100 W, experiments were carried out in steps of 20 W. For heater powers
greater than 100 W, the heater power was varied in steps of 50 W.
The upper limit on heater power was decided by the single-phase
ow limit. At heater powers above 700 W, subcooled boiling was
observed in the heater. A summary of experimental runs is given in
Table 3.
A total of 73 experimental runs were carried out. Variation in
loop mass ow rate is insignicant for the uncertainty reported in
cooler secondary mass ow rate. The measured and calculated
values along with uncertainty for different experimental runs are
given in Appendix A. Further details can be obtained from Naveen
(2013).
A representative plot of the loop mass ow rate, the loop
average temperature and the cooler secondary inlet water temperature is shown in Fig. 4 for a heater power input of 200 W. As
stated earlier, the uncertainty in power measurement is the biggest
contributor to overall uncertainty in the loop mass ow rate measurement. Therefore, at least 5 runs were taken for experiments
with heater power less than 100 W. However, a minimum of 3 runs
were taken for experiments at all heater powers.

110

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116

Table 3
Summary of experimental runs.

10

Power range
Cooler secondary ow rate
Cooler secondary water temperature

40 We700 W
5 lpm
30.4 (2)  C

Present experiment
Vijayan et al. (1994) - 6 mm loop
Vijayan et al. (1994) - 11 mm loop
Vijayan et al. (1994) - 23.2 mm loop
Vijayan et al. (2007) - 26.9 mm loop
Mousavian et al. (2004) - 40 mm loop
Misale et al. (2007) - 4 mm loop
Bau and Torrance (1981) - 25 mm loop

10

Re =1.96(Gr /N )

4. Development of friction factor correlation


fF

16=Re Laminar flow



0:079 Re0:25 Turbulent flow

(27)

Substitution of the values for p and b from Eq. (27) into Eq. (5)
gives

(
Ress

0:1768Grm =NG 0:5


1:96Grm =NG 1=2:75

Laminar flow
Turbulent flow

(28)

A comparison of present experimental data with steady state


forced convections laws (Eq. (28)) is shown in Fig. 5. Vijayan and
Austregesilo (1994), Vijayan et al. (2007), Mousavian et al. (2004)
and Misale et al. (2007) have also carried out experimental investigations in natural circulation loops having horizontal heater
and horizontal cooler. Their data is also plotted for comparison.
Fig. 5 shows that for the HHHC orientation, the friction factor is
considerably higher (Ress in the experiment is lower) than that
given by Poiseuille and Blasius laws.
0.020

50

Mass flow rate (kg/s)

Temperature ( C)

40

0.015

30
0.010
Legends
Secondary water inlet temperature
Loop average temperature
o Mass flow rate

0.005

0.000

26

28

30

32

34

20

10

0
36

Run No.
Fig. 4. Experimentally obtained loop mass ow rates for heater power input of 200 W.

Ress

Re =0.1768(Gr /N )

The loop steady state behavior has been predicted using the
model described in Naveen et al. (2011) and Naveen (2013). In all
the numerical simulations, the expansion tank is modeled as a time
dependent volume exchanging only swell and shrinkages in the
main loop uid. The details of the mathematical model are presented in Naveen et al. (2011) and Naveen (2013). The pressure in
the expansion tank is assumed to be constant. In all the simulations,
the wall heat transfer coefcients have been evaluated using the
correlations proposed by Meyer et al. (2008) and Aicher and Martin
(1997) for horizontal and vertical pipe sections respectively. For the
present loop, the cooler secondary heat transfer coefcient has
been evaluated using SiedereTate correlation for laminar heat
transfer which gives a value of 450 W/(m2K) for a coolant ow rate
of 5 lpm at 30.4  C.
Vijayan (2002) argued that the following conventional friction
factor correlations applicable for forced circular pipes predict the
loop behavior reasonable well

10

10

10
10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

Grm/NG
Fig. 5. Comparison of steady state natural circulation ow for loops having horizontal
heater and horizontal cooler.

From Fig. 5, it is seen that our experimental data is in agreement


with that reported by Mousavian et al. (2004). However, the present experimental data shows signicant deviations from that of
Mousavian et al. (2004) and Misale et al. (2007) for Reynolds
number less than 100. This may be because of the use of single
thermocouples used in present experiment for uid temperature
measurement. This is also evident from large scatter observed in
present experimental data at very low powers. Data reported by
Bau and Torrance (1981) show signicant deviation from the data
of others. This is because of the reason that Bau and Torrance (1981)
carried out experiments in an open natural circulation loop and
local losses and the losses in the line connecting the two cooling
sections could not considered. It was not possible to account for the
local losses because only a few geometrical details were available
for this loop. Hence data reported by Bau and Torrance show signicant deviation from the data of others. Further, it is seen from
Fig. 5 that the conventional forced convection friction factor correlations show signicant deviations from observed experimental
behavior.
The local losses may also play a signicant role in loop behavior.
The effect of local losses on ow behavior is shown in Fig. 6. It can
be seen from Fig. 6(a) and (b) that all the data points are far away
from the theoretical equation derived using conventional friction
factor correlation applicable for forced circultion. A comparison of
Fig 6(a) with (b) shows that the effect of local losses is not signicant for the operating ranges investigated experimentally. Fig. 7
shows the straight line t for the present experimental data
when plotted on Ress versus Grm/NG plane. It is seen from Fig. 7 that
most of the data points fall on a straight line. This is in conrmation
with the scaling laws proposed by Vijayan and Austregesilo (1994)
for single-phase natural circulation loops. The following equation
gives the best straight line t for the present experimental data on a
logelog scale:

Ress 0:2285Grm =NG 0:44844

(29)

Using the scaling laws dened by Vijayan and Austregesilo


(1994), the following correlation for the Darcys friction factor can
be deduced from Eq. (29)

fD 53:788=Re0:77

(30)

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116

10000

111

10000

Laminar flow correlation


Turbulent flow correlation
Present experiment
1000

Present experiment
0.44844
Ress=0.2285(Grm/NG)

Ress

Ress

1000

100

100
1000000

1E7

1E8

1E9

10
1E7

1E10

Grm/Ng

1E8

1E9

1E10

Grm/Ng

(a)

Fig. 7. Steady state natural circulation ow in present experimental loop.

10000

Laminar flow correlation


Turbulent flow correlation
Present experiment

Ress

1000

100
1000000

1E7

1E8

1E9

1E10

Grm/Ng

existence of three different regimes: (a) completely laminar, (b)


completely turbulent and (c) partially laminar e partially turbulent.
During the oscillatory phase transition from laminar to turbulent
and vice versa was also observed. Bau and Torrance (1981) made
similar observations in their experimental investigations in an open
natural circulation loop. Also, the correlation given by Eq. (18) has
been developed for fully developed ow while in a natural circulation loop; the conditions may not be fully developed all along the
loop. Further, Eq. (18) was derived based on experimental data for
Re greater than 1000.
Based on the present experimental data, the following correlation, which is a modication of the correlation proposed by Morcos
and Bergles (1975) and Meyer et al. (2008), has been proposed for
the Fanning friction factor for horizontal pipes under diabatic
conditions:

h
i1=
fF fL 1 fTt =fL 6:4 6:4

(31)

(b)
Fig. 6. Comparison of experimental data with theoretical correlation given by Eq. (28)
(a) With local losses and (b) Without local losses.

1000

Ress

As discussed earlier, Eq. (30) is also specic to present loop just


like the correlations described in section 2.
A comparison of experimental data with the model predictions
made using the wall friction factor given by Eq. (18) is shown in
Fig. 8. It is noted from Fig. 8 that the model predictions are still away
from the experimental observation. The reason for this could be (a)
the transition criterion adopted by Meyer et al. (2008) and (b) the
range of applicability of the correlation. Eq. (18) assumes the transition from laminar to turbulent ow taking place at Reynolds
number equal to 2000, as is clear from Eq. (21). However, in natural
circulation loops turbulent ow can exist at Reynolds number as
low as 500. Jackson et al. (1989) reviewed the studies of mixed
convection in vertical tubes and noted the existence of turbulent
ow for Reynolds number less than 1000. In their study on singlephase natural circulation in toroidal loops, Creveling et al. (1975)
noted the transition between laminar and turbulent regimes at
Reynolds number equal to 1500. Widmann et al. (1989) made visual
examinations in their experimental investigations on thermosyphon in a toroidal loop using Kalleriscopic akes and observed the

10000

100

Present experiment
Model predictions

10
1000000

1E7

1E8

1E9

1E10

Grm/NG
Fig. 8. Comparison of experimentally obtained loop mass ow rate with model predictions made using friction factor given by Eq. (27).

112

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116

where

0.050
0.045

(32)

Model prediction
Present experiment

0.040


15 1=15

fL 16=Re 1 1:56Ra0:15
f

(33)

fT 0:0791Re0:25 m=mw 0:2

(34)

ft 0:03862Re=20006

(35)

Eq. (31) is similar to that proposed by Meyer et al. (2008) except


that the laminar friction factor is obtained from a modied form of
Morcos and Bergles (1975) correlation and value of coefcient in
Eq. (22) is obtained from Eq. (30) by substituting Reynolds number
equal to 2000. Figs. 9 and 10 show the comparison of model predictions made using friction factor given by Eq. (31) with experimental data in non-dimensional and dimensional form
respectively. Fig. 11 shows a comparison of predicted temperature
difference across the heater with experimentally observed
behavior. From Figs. 9e11 it is seen that model predictions made
using the proposed friction factor correlation are in reasonably
good agreement with experimentally observed behavior.
5. Numerical investigations using the proposed friction factor
correlation
5.1. Investigations on the loop addressed in Vijayan et al. (2001,
2007)
The proposed correlation is applicable only for ow through
horizontal pipes because it is based on steady state experimental
data. Under steady state conditions, the wall and uid temperature
is expected to be same everywhere in the loop except in the heater
and cooler. Hence, the proposed correlation accounts for enhanced
friction only in horizontal section. Since, the proposed correlation is
based on the temperature drop across liquid lm; it is expected to
be applicable for all horizontal pipe ows. Hence, it is only logical to
test the proposed correlation for the loop addressed by Vijayan
et al. (2001). Vijayan et al. (2001) carried out experimental

Mass flow rate (kg/s)

h
i
fTt fT 1 ft =fT 2

12

0.035
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Heater power (W)


Fig. 10. Comparison of loop mass ow rate predicted by model with experimental
data.

investigations in a rectangular single-phase natural circulation


loop. The loop consists of a uniform diameter rectangular natural
circulation loop. The details of the experimental set-up are given in
Vijayan et al. (2001, 2007). However, just for the sake of
completeness a brief description is given. It consists of borosilicate
glass tubes of inside diameter 26.9 mm and outside diameter
28.9 mm. The loop height and width are 2.2 m and 1.415 m
respectively. The horizontal and vertical sections are joined by 900
bends. The loop has two heaters and two coolers. One of the heaters
is at lowest elevation and the other one is in vertical section. The
lengths of the horizontal and vertical heaters are 620 mm and
730 mm respectively. The heater consists of a nichrome wire evenly
wound on the outside of the glass tube. One of the coolers is placed
in the horizontal section at the uppermost elevation and the other
cooler is placed in vertical pipe section. Each cooler is 800 mm long
with outer tube having inside diameter of 49.2 mm and 1.5 mm wall
thickness. The coolant ow to the secondary side of the cooler is
provided from an overhead tank. The loop also has an expansion
tank located at the highest elevation to take care of the thermal
7

Temperature difference across heater ( C)

10000

Ress

1000

100

10
1E7

Model prediction made using


proposed correlation
Present experiment

1E8

1E9

1E10

Grm/NG
Fig. 9. Comparison of experimentally obtained loop mass ow rate with model predictions made using proposed friction factor correlation.

Model predictions
Present experiment

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Heater power (W)


Fig. 11. Variation of steady state temperature difference across heater with heater
power input.

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116


ff

Eq: 31 Horizontal pipes




16 Re; 0:079 Re0:25
Vertical pipes

(36)

Figs. 12 and 13 show the comparisons of model predictions


made using constant property forced convection friction factor
correlation (also referred as conventional friction factor correlation) and the presently proposed friction factor correlation with
experimental data for a heater power input of 120 W and 220 W
respectively. From Fig. 12, it is seen that the model predictions with
conventional forced friction correlation show ow reversals during
ow initiation whereas predictions with the proposed friction
factor correlation show only unidirectional ow oscillation. However, there is still mismatch between the observed and predicted
frequency and magnitude of oscillations. It is seen from Fig. 13 that
for 220 W heater power, the model predictions made using proposed friction factor correlation are in close agreement with the
experimental data. It is worth noting here that the predictions with
conventional friction factor correlation predict only unidirectional
oscillation while predictions made with proposed correlation predict bidirectional oscillation. The difference between the predicted
and experimentally observed behavior can be attributed to the
inability of the expansion tank model to account for energy exchange by natural convection.
Fig. 14 shows the comparison of predicted ow initiation transient with experimentally observed behavior for 220 W heater
power. It is seen from Fig. 14 that initially only unidirectional oscillations are observed both in model predictions and experimentally observed behavior. With the passage of time, the oscillations
become bidirectional. However, there is mismatch in the behavior
of initial oscillations. The differences in the initial amplitude of
oscillations can be attributed to use of constant property pure
forced convection friction factor for vertical pipe sections. Saylor

p (mm of water column)

expansion/shrinkage of water. The expansion tank consists of a


97.3 mm internal diameter and 100.3 mm outer diameter cylindrical tank. The tank is connected to the main loop through a
21 mm outer diameter and 18 mm internal diameter tube of
252 mm length. To minimize the heat loss to atmosphere, the loop
was insulated with ceramic wool.
The results of the numerical simulations carried out using proposed correlation are presented here. The following friction factor
correlation has been used for predicting the loop transient
behavior:

113

Experiment
Model Prediction using friction factor,
2
0.25 2 0.5
f = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Model Prediction using proposed
friction factor correlation

-1

-2

-3
6000

6500

7000

7500

8000

Time (s)
Fig. 13. Model prediction for heater power of 220 W.

and Joye (1991) studied pressure drop in mixed convection heat


transfer in vertical tubes and observed that at low Reynolds
numbers and high Grashof numbers, the pressure drop for aiding
ow (heating in up ow and cooling in down ow) through a
vertical tube under constant temperature conditions can be orders
of magnitude higher than that expected on the basis of forced ow
considerations. They also observed negative pressure drop for
downow heating in mixed convection zone. In a natural circulation loop, during start-up both aiding and opposing ow conditions
are encountered. However, as the ow picks up, the model is able to
predict the unidirectional and bidirectional oscillating behavior for
a heater power of 120 W and 220 W respectively which is in
agreement with the experimental data. It is hoped that once a more
precise friction model is generated for vertical tubes, the overall
prediction would be more precise.
5.2. Investigations on the loop addressed in Misale et al. (2011)
Misale et al. (2011) experimentally investigated the effect of
heat sink temperature on dynamic behavior of a rectangular single2.0

p (mm of water column)

p (mm of water column)

1.5

Model prediction using proposed


friction factor correlation
Model prediction using friction factor correlation,
2
0.25 2 0.5
f = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Experiment

1
0
-1

1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5

Model prediction
Experiment

-1.0
-1.5

-2

-2.0

-3

1000

2000

3000

Time (s)
Fig. 12. Model prediction for heater power of 120 W.

4000

1000

2000

3000

Time (s)

4000

5000

Fig. 14. Comparison of ow initiation transient for 220 W heater power predicted
using proposed friction factor correlation with experimentally observed behavior.

114

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116


40

40
2

20

THeater (K)

THeater (K)

20

-20

-20

-40

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

-40
1000

6000

1200

1400

1600

Fig. 15. Model prediction for 500 W heater power input and 10
temperature.

C

heat sink

phase natural circulation loop having horizontal heater and horizontal cooler. The loop consists of a 30 mm I.D. and 1.3 mm wall
thickness pipe having 1112 mm width and 988 mm height. The
vertical legs and the four bends are made of SS and the cooler and
heater are made of Cu. The heater and cooler lengths are respectively 960 mm and 900 mm. The heater in the experimental test
facility consists of a nichrome wire evenly wound on the outside of
the Cu tube. The cooler is a double pipe heat exchanger having
outer tube I.D. of 102 mm (wall thickness 3 mm). Water and Glycol
mixture having 40  C freezing temperature is used as coolant on
the cooler secondary side and cooler secondary ow rate was
maintained at 0.61 kg/s throughout the experiments. In numerical
simulations for this loop, the cooler secondary heat transfer coefcient is calculated using SiedereTate equation (with viscosity
correction) and the coolant temperature has been assumed to be
constant. To start with the loop is assumed to be lled with water at
30  C temperature and the uid velocity is assumed to be zero. In
present study the loop behavior was simulated using the 1-D model
described in Naveen (2013). Figs. 15e19 compare the model predictions made using the conventional friction factor correlation

2000

2200

2400

Fig. 17. Model prediction for 500 W heater power input and 10
temperature.

2600

2800

C

heat sink

with that proposed in the present study (Eq. (36)). It is seen from
these gures that the frequency of ow reversal increases when
predicted with proposed friction factor correlation. The frequency
of oscillation predicted by the proposed friction factor correlation is
qualitatively more closer to that observed experimentally. However, both the correlations predict unstable behavior for all the heat
sink temperatures.
6. Conclusions
Numerical and experimental investigations have been carried
out to study the effect of constitutive laws for wall friction on loop
steady state behavior. The results presented in this paper have
helped in gaining more insight into the role of friction factor in
single-phase natural circulation loop dynamics. The following insights are obtained from this study:
1. The role of constitutive laws for wall friction derived from
steady state forced convection experiments in predicting the
steady state single-phase loop dynamics has been investigated.
Literature survey fails to give a satisfactory answer for the

40

40
2

0.25 2 0.5

fD = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Proposed correlation (Eq. 34)

0.25 2 0.5

fD = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Proposed correlation (Eq. 34)

20

THeater (K)

20

-20

-20

-40
1000

1800

Time (s)

Time (s)

THeater (K)

0.25 2 0.5

fD = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Proposed correlation (Eq. 34)

0.25 2 0.5

fD = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Proposed correlation (Eq. 34)

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

Time (s)

Time (s)
Fig. 16. Model prediction for 500 W heater power input and 0
temperature.

-40
1000

C

heat sink

Fig. 18. Model prediction for 500 W heater power input and 20
temperature.

C

heat sink

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116

115

Appendix A

40
2

0.25 2 0.5

fD = ((64/Re) +(0.316/Re ) )
Proposed correlation (Eq. 34)

Table A.1
Steady state data for different experimental runs.

THeater (K)

20

-40
1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

Time (s)
Fig. 19. Model prediction for 500 W heater power input and 30
temperature.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Power
(W)

Tavg
( C)

DT
across
heater

Cooler
secondary
inlet water
temp. ( C)

Loop
mass ow
rate, W
(kg/s)

Expanded
uncertainty
(%)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66

40
40
40
40
40
60
60
60
60
60
60
80
80
80
80
80
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
150
150
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
240
250
300
300
300
300
310
350
350
350
350
350
370
400
400
400
400
400
400
450
450
450
500
500
500
500
550
580
600
600
600

30.2
33.8
34.4
35.0
34.3
35.2
33.0
35.0
35.9
36.1
35.7
36.0
34.0
36.7
37.2
36.9
35.2
34.4
38.2
37.5
38.2
38.7
38.3
39.7
41.0
40.5
42.0
41.2
42.7
42.1
42.0
43.3
43.1
42.8
43.0
44.8
45.0
46.9
47.8
47.6
47.2
45.3
48.6
49.5
49.7
49.6
49.9
51.0
50.3
45.2
51.1
51.4
51.8
51.6
53.3
53.5
54.1
55.7
55.9
55.4
55.9
57.6
55.3
52.6
57.2
55.6

1.4342
1.4711
1.5253
1.5297
1.5730
2.1932
2.2543
1.8718
1.7793
2.0457
1.9573
2.3941
2.5779
2.2727
2.3923
2.2680
2.7226
2.0448
2.9057
2.5976
2.5623
2.8447
2.6670
2.8864
2.9467
3.4244
3.3936
3.0938
3.4404
3.6244
3.3797
3.3393
3.2227
3.3297
3.3010
3.6313
3.4195
4.1354
3.9700
3.7023
3.9723
4.3887
3.9987
4.0067
4.0433
4.1893
3.8537
4.3020
4.3496
3.4048
4.3146
4.3157
4.4427
4.3483
4.7307
4.5150
4.3203
4.7217
4.7800
4.8467
4.8250
4.9253
5.4259
4.6342
5.2366
4.5838

27.0
30.4
31.2
31.6
31.1
29.7
28.3
30.8
31.1
31.6
31.3
30.3
28.3
31.0
31.5
31.2
27.6
27.8
31.1
31.0
31.1
31.6
31.2
30.5
31.4
28.1
29.7
30.2
31.1
30.4
30.9
30.9
31.0
31.6
31.1
30.9
31.0
30.8
30.9
31.4
31.3
28.3
30.7
31.5
31.0
31.0
31.1
30.3
29.9
25.6
31.1
31.3
30.9
31.3
31.2
31.1
31.3
31.6
30.6
30.7
31.4
31.2
28.8
25.6
30.0
28.0

0.0067
0.0065
0.0063
0.0063
0.0061
0.0065
0.0064
0.0077
0.0081
0.0070
0.0073
0.0080
0.0074
0.0084
0.0080
0.0084
0.0088
0.0117
0.0082
0.0092
0.0093
0.0084
0.0090
0.0124
0.0122
0.0140
0.0141
0.0155
0.0139
0.0132
0.0142
0.0143
0.0148
0.0144
0.0145
0.0158
0.0175
0.0174
0.0181
0.0194
0.0181
0.0169
0.0209
0.0209
0.0207
0.0200
0.0217
0.0206
0.0220
0.0281
0.0222
0.0222
0.0215
0.0220
0.0227
0.0238
0.0249
0.0253
0.0250
0.0247
0.0248
0.0267
0.0256
0.0310
0.0274
0.0313

12.63
12.60
12.58
12.59
12.58
8.46
8.45
8.48
8.51
8.46
8.43
6.42
6.44
6.48
6.39
6.42
5.50
5.36
5.19
5.28
5.21
5.14
5.18
3.66
3.64
3.36
2.85
2.95
2.79
2.83
2.83
2.75
2.75
2.74
2.74
2.34
2.31
2.00
1.98
2.08
1.95
2.67
1.84
1.82
1.81
1.77
1.76
1.75
1.73
1.92
1.66
1.68
1.58
1.65
1.57
1.57
1.49
1.40
1.46
1.46
1.37
1.47
1.36
1.48
1.35
1.49

-20

2.

Run
no.

C

heat sink

problem at hand. Based on the curve tting, different correlations have been obtained for different heater and cooler orientations. These correlations give different values of friction factor
for the same Reynolds number. This brings out the inherent
inadequacy of the above approach used for deriving friction
factor correlations from steady state experimental data. The
above approach based on straight line t clearly fails to bring out
the physics of the process and correlation derived in this way are
highly specic to the loop and the heater and the cooler orientation. Hence, these correlations have a limited applicability.
The steady state experimental investigations have been carried
out in a natural circulation loop having horizontal heater and
horizontal cooler orientation. These investigations clearly show
that the conventional wall constitutive laws derived from constant property steady state forced convection experimental data
fail to predict the observed experimental behavior.
The present experimental data for HHHC orientation is in
agreement with the experimental data reported in the literature
for the same heater and cooler orientations.
The experimental results show that loop mass ow rate increases with increase in heater power. Model predictions made
using conventional friction factor laws overpredict the mass
ow rate at all heater power inputs.
A new correlation has been proposed for friction factor in horizontal pipes under mixed convection. The proposed correlation
is a modication of friction factor correlations proposed by
Morcos and Bergles (1975) and Meyer et al. (2008). The proposed correlation predicts the loop steady state behavior quite
well. However, similar correlations need to be developed for
ow through vertical pipes also for predicting the loop dynamics more accurately.
The proposed friction factor correlation has been used to predict
the transient behavior of the loop addressed by Vijayan et al.
(2001, 2007). A comparison of model prediction made using
the conventional forced ow friction factor correlation with the
proposed correlation shows that the proposed correlation predicts the loop behavior more closely.
Model application to the loop addressed by Misale et al. (2011)
show that the proposed correlation predicts the loop behavior
better than that predicted using conventional forced ow friction factor correlation. However, the model predictions show
unstable behavior for all heat sink temperatures while the
experimental observations show stable loop behavior for a heat
sink temperature of 10  C.

(continued on next page)

116

K. Naveen et al. / Progress in Nuclear Energy 75 (2014) 105e116

Table A.1 (continued )


Run
no.

Power
(W)

Tavg
( C)

DT
across
heater

Cooler
secondary
inlet water
temp. ( C)

Loop
mass ow
rate, W
(kg/s)

67
68
69
70
71
72
73

600
600
600
620
640
700
700

59.8
59.9
60.3
58.1
58.0
63.4
63.3

5.1940
5.3243
5.1737
5.2991
5.2691
5.5520
5.7153

31.5
30.7
31.6
29.1
29.1
31.4
30.9

0.0276
0.0269
0.0277
0.0280
0.0290
0.0301
0.0293

Expanded
uncertainty
(%)
1.26
1.30
1.27
2.26
2.45
1.18
1.21

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