Linear Algebra

BS-121 (3-0)
Lecture # 1
Date:11-05-2012

Introduction

There are at least two main approaches to the study of linear algebra.
1. The more abstract is to introduce the general discussion of vector spaces
first. In this approach matrices come up in a natural way in the discussion
of linear transformation and the usual theorems about the solvability of
systems of linear equations come out in due course.
2. The other approach, which is more concrete, is to begin the discussion with
matrices and systems of linear equations. The advantage of this
direction is that it introduces the general concepts with examples in a more
familiar setting.

This is the approach we shall take in this course.

Linear Algebra???

"Not only is linear algebra indispensable to the mathematics

major, but. . . it is that part of algebra which is most useful in the
application of mathematical analysis to other areas, e.g., linear
programming, systems analysis, statistics, engineering, numerical
analysis, combinatorics, and mathematical physics."
(Professor Dettman (Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan) )

Linear Algebra???

Linear algebra has in recent years become an essential part of the
mathematical background required of mathematicians, engineers, physicists
and other scientists. This requirement reflects the importance and wide
applications of the subject matter.

Linear Algebra includes the theory and application of linear system of
equations, linear transformations, and eigenvalue problems, as they arise,
for instance, from electrical networks, frameworks in mechanics, curve
fitting and other optimization problems, systems of differential equations, and
processes in statistics.

Linear algebra makes systematic use of vectors and matrices and, to a

lesser extent, determinants.

1- Matrices and matrix Operations

Matrix Notation and Terminology
The following rectangular array with three rows and seven columns might describe the
number of hours that a student spent studying three subjects during a certain week:

If we suppress the headings, then we are left with the following rectangular array of
numbers with three rows and seven columns, called a matrix:

More generally, we make the following definition

DEFINITION
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers (or functions). These numbers (or
functions) in the array are called the entries or elements of the matrix.
EXAMPLE 1:
Some examples of matrices are

The size of a matrix is described in terms of the number of rows (horizontal lines) and
columns (vertical lines) it contains.
The first matrix in Example 1 has three rows and two columns, so its size is 3 by 2
(written 3 2 ). In a size description, the first number always denotes the number of
rows, and the second denotes the number of columns.
A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix (or a column vector), and a
matrix with only one row is called a row matrix (or a row vector).

We shall use capital letters to denote matrices and lowercase letters to denote
numerical quantities; thus we might write

General Notations and Concepts

m n matrix we mean a matrix with m rows and n columns.

m n matrix might be written as

By an

Thus a general

When compactness of notation is desired, the preceding matrix can be written as

The entry in i-th row and j-th column of matrix A is also commonly denoted by the
symbol ( A ) ij . Thus, for the above matrix we have

Thus a general row matrix a and a general column matrix b is written as

A matrix A with n rows and n columns is called a square matrix of order n, and
the Shaded entries are said to be on the main diagonal of A.

Any matrix that is not square is called a rectangular matrix.

Equality of Matrices
Two matrices are defined to be equal if they have the same size and their
corresponding entries are equal.

Addition and Subtraction

If A and B are matrices of the same size, then the sum A + B is the matrix obtained
by adding the entries of B to the corresponding entries of A,
and the difference A B is the matrix obtained by subtracting the entries of B from
the corresponding entries of A. Matrices of different sizes cannot be added or
subtracted.

Scalar multiple
If A is any matrix and c is any scalar, then the product cA is the matrix obtained by
multiplying each entry of the matrix A by c. The matrix cA is said to be a scalar
multiple of A.

Examples

It is common practice to denote (-1)B by B.

Linear Combination

Nodal Incidence Matrices

Multiplying Matrices

Schematic depiction of the matrix product AB of two matrices A and B.

Condition For Matrix Multiplication

The definition of matrix multiplication requires that the number of columns of the first
factor A be the same as the number of rows of the second factor B in order to form
the product . If this condition is not satisfied, the product is undefined. A convenient way
to determine whether a product of two matrices is defined as

Example:
Consider the matrices
Since A is a 2 by 3 matrix and B is a 3 by 4 matrix, the product is a 2 by 4 matrix.

To determine, for example, the entry in row 2 and column 3, as illustrated below, we
multiply corresponding entries together and add up these products.

The entry in row 1 and column 4 of is computed as follows:

Differences from Multiplication of Numbers

Matrix multiplication differs from the multiplication of numbers by some unusual
properties, which is of great practical importance.
For real numbers a and b, we always have a b = b a , which is called the commutative
law for multiplication. For matrices, however, AB and BA need not be equal.

Matrix Multiplication Is Not Commutative,

AB BA in General

Equality can fail to hold for three reasons:

 AB is defined but BA is undefined.
For example, this is the case if A is a 2 by 3 matrix and B is a 3 by 4 matrix.
 AB and BA are both defined but have different sizes. This is the situation if A is a 2 by
3 matrix and B is a 3 by 2 matrix.
 Finally, it is possible even if both AB and BA are defined and have the same size.

AB = 0

does not necessarily imply

A= 0

or

B=0

or

BA= 0

For instance,

AB = AC does not necessarily imply B = C (even when

That is Cancellation Law does not hold for matrices
Consider the matrices,

Verify!

Applications of matrix multiplication (ASSIGNMENT)

A 0 )

Properties of Matrix Arithmetic

Assuming that the sizes of the matrices are such that the indicated operations can be
performed, the following rules of matrix arithmetic are valid.

Transpose of a matrix

The following are some examples of matrices and their transposes.

Rules for transposition are

Trace of a Matrix

The following are some examples of matrices and their traces.

Properties of Trace of a matrix

( a ) tr ( A ) = tr ( A T )
( b ) tr ( A + B ) = tr ( A ) + tr ( B )
( c ) tr ( A ) = tr ( A )
( d ) tr ( A B ) = tr ( B A )( tr ( A ) tr ( B ))

Zero Matrix or Null Matrix (O)

is a matrix with all its entries being zero.

Some examples of zero matrices are

There are a number of familiar properties of the real number zero (0) that do carry over
to null matrices.

(i ) A + O = O + A = A
( ii ) A A = O
( iii ) O A = A
( iv ) A O = 0 ; O A = O

Null matrices are rectangular as well as square.

Identity Matrices (or Unit Matrices)

Of special interest are square matrices ( I or I n

) with 1's on the main diagonal and

0's off the main diagonal, such as

If A is an m by n matrix, then,

AIn = A and ImA = A

Thus, an identity matrix plays much the same role in matrix arithmetic that the real
number 1 plays in the numerical relationships 1 . a = a = a .1 .

Inverse of a Matrix
If A is a square matrix, and if a matrix B of the same size can be found such that ,

AB = I = BA
then A is said to be invertible and B is called an inverse of A. If no such matrix B can
be found, then A is said to be singular.
Verifying the Inverse Requirements

The matrix

Since

and

If A is invertible, then its inverse will be denoted by the symbol

A1 . Thus,

AA1 = I = A1 A

If B and C are both inverses of the matrix A, then
is unique.

B = C . That is inverse of a matrix

Properties of Inverses
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same size, then is

( AB)1 = B1 A1
T

If A is an invertible matrix, then A is also invertible and

( AT )1 = ( A1 )T

AB

invertible and

ASSIGNMENT
APPLICAIONS OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
(Submission Date: 18-05-2012)