Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Systems
Robert J. Schalkoff
Clemson
JONES
Sudbury,
BOSTON
University
TORONTO
Massachusetts
LONDON
SINGAPORE
Principles,
Paradigms,
Pragmatics
and
Contents
Preface
Introduction to
1.1
1.2
1.3
xxv
Intelligent Systems
(IS)?
1.1.1
Key Topics
1.1.2
1.1.3
Some
1.1.4
IS: A
Psychology-Based Viewpoint
1.1.5
Two
Key
or
Themes
Approaches
Events and
to IS
History
Development
of Artificial
....
1.2.1
A Timetable of
1.2.2
Key
Events
an
f>
Elusive Goal
to
IS
7
!)
1.3.1
1.3.2
Puzzle
1.3.3
Data
1.3.4
Semantic Computing
11
1.3.5
IS and Game
II
(Versus?)
Solving (Riddles)
Versus Knowledge
the Brain
and
E>
10
Intelligence
11
Theory
1.4
12
1.5
14
1.6
Tools for IS
1.7
Quantitative
1.8
1.9
Practice
First
2.1
2.2
Steps
or
Introductory
in IS:
14
Going?
Development
15
16
Exercises
17
Representation
in IS
19
19
2.1.1
Knowledge Representation
2.1.2
Human
2.1.3
and
19
Chunking
19
20
20
vi
Contents
2.2.1
Discrete Mathematics:
2.2.2
Digraphs
2.2.3
Semantic Net
2.3
2.4
Structuring
2.5
2.6
Using Relations
and
Properties
20
to Semantic Nets
21
Examples
Concepts
21
and
the
Relationships,
or
Words
Frames and
Representation:
Object-Oriented Representations
Slots, "is-a," and Inheritance
2.4.1
Frame
2.4.2
Object-Oriented Approaches
Ontologies: Concept
24
26
2.5.2
What Is
2.5.3
27
2.5.4
Standardization of
27
The
an
Ontology
Protege Ontology
and
26
Why
Ontology
Do I Care?
26
Formats
Editor
30
Protege Examples
31
33
2.7.1
CYC
33
2.7.2
Common Sense
(OpenCYC)
(MIT)
33
35
Expert Systems
35
2.8.1
What Is
2.8.2
Rule-Based
2.8.3
How
2.8.4
The
2.8.5
The
an
Long
Expert System?
Implementations
35
38
Appeal
of
an
Expert?
38
Expert Systems
39
2.8.6
2.9
23
24
and Tools
2.6.2
2.8
....
2.5.1
2.6.1
2.7
22
Exercises
39
42
42
45
3.1
Why
45
3.2
The
3.2.1
3.3
Computational Complexity?
Concept of a System State Space
System State Representation
3.2.2
The
3.2.3
Satisfying Goals
3.2.4
State
Space
via State
45
46
Manipulation
with
Operators
47
47
Computational Complexity
3.3.1
Complexity Functions
3.3.2
3.4
System
45
48
48
Search
Complexity
49
51
3.4.1
To Search
3.4.2
Problem
3.4.3
Definition of
3.4.4
State-Space Graphs
52
3.4.5
53
or
Not to Search
51
Representation
a
Search Problem
51
(P)
52
Contents
3.4.6
3.4.7
3.4.8
From
3.4.9
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Another
Example:
3.5.1
Example
3.5.2
Propagation
Graphical
The
of Search and
Explosion
53
55
Representations
55
Representation of Search
57
State-Space
57
Paths
57
of Operator Choices
59
Heuristics
59
3.6.1
What Is
3.6.2
Definitions
59
3.6.3
Applications
59
3.6.4
Sample
3.6.5
Why
3.6.6
The
3.6.7
Machine
Heuristic?
60
IS Heuristics
60
Use Heuristics?
and
Power, Application,
Learning
The Computational
Properties of
61
Heuristics
61
of Heuristics
("Blind")
62
Search
62
Cost of Search
3.8.2
Common Search
of States
Other Search
65
66
3.11
Exercises
3.10
63
65
Brute Force
3.9.2
63
65
Algorithms
("Uninformed") Algorithms
Search
Systematic
Strategies
3.9.1
68
Constraint Satisfaction
4.1
53
of State
3.8.1
3.9
Graph
to Tree
vii
Problems,
71
Part 1
71
(CSPs)
71
4.1.1
4.1.2
72
Formal Definition
73
4.1.3
73
Problems
4.2
CSPs
4.3
74
4.3.1
/c-SAT
74
4.3.2
SAT Solutions
74
4.3.3
SAT
74
as
Properties
(Somewhat) Obvious
4.4
4.5
4.6
The
4.6.1
4.6.2
Role for
Problem
Labeling (Assignment)
Labeling Complexity
4.6.3
4.6.4
Adding Unary
4.6.5
Adding
Constraints
Global Constraints
Prolog
in CSPs
(GAT)
75
75
76
76
76
77
78
79
viii
Contents
Adding Optimization
4.6.6
4.7
The
4.7.1
Background
4.8
and
Prolog-Based
4.7.2
to the Formulation
82
Problem
Map Coloring
85
85
History
Solution
Approaches
Assignment Problems and Alternative Solution
Approaches
88
4.8.1
A General
4.8.2
Enforcing
Representational Framework
4.8.3
88
89
Discrete
Propagation: Introducing
Relaxation
4.9
4.10
Investigating
90
Solution Efficiencies
98
4.9.1
Considering
4.9.2
GAT
99
4.9.3
99
4.9.4
Backtracking
4.9.5
Constraint Propagation
Search
98
99
100
4.10.2
Continuous/Probabilistic Formulations
"Relaxing" and Extending Several Aspects of
An Algorithm for Propagating P,:(A)
4.10.3
Extension to
4.10.1
4.11
Summary
4.12
A More
100
Discrete Relaxation
100
102
103
108
4.12.1
4.12.2
Objectives
4.12.3
Simple
4.12.4
Problem Formulation
4.12.5
4.12.6
Prolog Description
Breaker Backup
4.12.7
Detailed
Protection
Analysis
108
108
108
Power Protection
of
Background
109
109
System Topology
110
Ill
Listing
of Overall
4.12.9
Sample
Results
4.12.10
4.12.8
Ill
Prolog Program
117
120
for Electric Power
System Protection
Interpretation
86
121
4.13
Extensions
121
4.14
Exercises
121
CSPs,
Part 2: Structural
Understanding
5.1
Introduction
5.2
What
5.3
Natural
5.4
Early
Types
to Natural
Topics
Language
129
129
of Problems Have Structural Constraints?
Language
NL
Approaches Leading
and Related
and Structure
Understanding Efforts
129
132
132
5.4.1
McCarthy's Proposal
132
5.4.2
ELIZA
133
Contents
Natural
5.5
5.6
Example:
5.5.2
5.5.3
L(G)
5.5.4
Grammar Modes
5.5.5
Grammar
Types
Syntax, Semantics,
5.5.7
Graphical Aids
138
and Context
139
13!)
140
5.6.1
5.6.2
Grammar Gl
5.6.3
Sample
5.6.4
142
5.6.5
144
Feature Structure-Based
Simple
140
140
Results for
5.8
Simple
Grammar
Parse to Structure to
141
148
Meaning
Representation
and Manipulation
149
Motivations
149
5.8.2
Feature Structures
5.8.3
Feature Structure-Based
5.8.4
157
5.8.5
Rules
158
5.8.6
158
5.8.7
Lattice
159
as
and Basic
(FS)
149
Properties
153
Manipulation
Feature Structures
Processing
Directions
Exercises
From
6.3
138
5.9
136
137
and Productions
5.5.6
From
6.2
(Rewrite Rules)
(String) Grammar
138
5.7
6.1
136
5.5.1
5.8.1
ix
161
Logic-Based Chaining
to Production
167
Systems
167
The Role of
6.2.1
6.2.2
Other
Logic-Based
Logic
Vocabulary
of
168
Families
169
Underpinnings of Rule-Based
6.3.1
6.3.2
An
6.3.3
Rule-Based
6.3.4
Implication-Based IS
Rule
Chaining Systems
169
170
170
Representation Examples
Engines
and Inference:
171
Implication
6.3.6
6.3.7
The
6.3.8
Resolution
6.3.9
Chaining,
6.5
Implementing
Directions,
Rule-Based
and Potential
(MP)
172
172
Inference
169
Example
6.3.5
6.4
167
Logic
172
to
to
MP
Illogical Results
Complexities
in
Chaining
Chaining
178
178
180
6.5.1
6.5.2
Computational
Elements of Rule-Based
176
Chaining
and
180
Examples
181
Contents
6.6
Extensions to the
Measures,
6.7
Rule
6.6.2
6.6.3
Conflict Resolution
6.6.4
181
Strategies
182
Examples
183
185
6.7.1
185
6.7.2
6.7.3
186
6.7.4
6.7.5
Production
Exercises
Systems
7.5
187
Systems:
The Next
188
189
Step
190
190
7.4
185
System Properties
Decomposable Production Systems
Production
7.3
185
6.9
7.2
Resolution
181
6.8
7.1
Selection, Conflict
6.6.1
6.7.6
(CLIPS)
195
195
7.1.1
CLIPS History
195
7.1.2
CLIPS Structure
195
7.1.3
CLIPS Nomenclature
196
7.1.4
196
7.1.5
CLIPS Documentation
196
7.1.6
Introductory
7.1.7
Logging
7.1.8
CLIPS
CLIPS
Examples
197
CLIPS Session
201
Help
202
202
7.2.1
202
7.2.2
A Third
ExamplePrelude
to
an
Expert System
210
210
7.3.2
The agenda
212
7.3.3
213
7.3.4
Forming
7.3.5
7.3.6
210
(agenda)
215
Strategies
Application Example:
215
216
"Tenure"
216
7.4.1
An Application Domain
216
7.4.2
The
219
7.4.3
Initial CLIPS
Development
Process
7.4.4
7.4.5
A CLIPS
7,5.1
Motivation
and Bananas
219
221
(MAB)
Problem
...
225
226
226
Contents
7.5.2
Computational Complexity
7.5.3
7.5.4
The''Traditional"
7.5.5
Rete
7.5.6
Productions and
7.5.7
7.5.8
Exploring
7.5.9
Writing
Efficient CLIPS
Beyond
Rete
7.5.10
227
of Production
227
System Operation
229
(I) Background
Data: Who's In
the Rete
Charge?
22!)
231
Algorithm
with CLIPS
234
23(i
Programs
238
238
Embedded CLIPS
7.6
7.7
7.6.1
Embedding
7.6.2
Sample
Production
CLIPS
238
System
Embedding (Using C)
238
241)
Descendants of CLIPS
7.7.1
227
Viewpoint
wm
240
JESS
7.7.2
Clips
7.7.3
Soar
xi
in Java
242
242
7.8
242
7.9
Exercises
242
Extended Production
System Representation
and
Manipulation Approaches,
253
Including Agents
8.1
8.2
8.3
Implementing
Representations
253
in CLIPS
25 1
254
8.2.1
Introduction
8.2.2
Module Definition
8.2.3
Specifying
8.2.4
Examples
8.2.5
Module
8.2.6
251
Syntax
25 I
Construct
254
25(i
Visibility
257
Production
Systems,
....
258
8.3.1
COOL Class
Syntax
258
8.3.2
258
8.3.3
8.4
Modular
Creating
8.3.5
and COOL
8.4.2
Sample Ontology
8.4.3
8.4.4
259
262
Instances
8.3.4
Graphical Representation
of the
262
266
266
266
Importing
266
Importing
*.
266
the
into CLIPS
8.4.5
Loading
8.4.6
8.4.7
Instance-Set
8.4.8
Protege, fuzzyCLIPS,
Protege Ontology
Queries
in COOL
and COOL
270
270
271
272
xii
Contents
8.5
8.6
IS
Representation/Knowledge
8.8
8.9
272
Consistency
Redundancy
272
8.5.2
Conflicts
272
8.5.3
Subsumed
Conditions
Unnecessary
8.5.5
Circular Rules
Nonmonotonic
272
Subordinate Rules
or
8.5.4
8.6.1
8.7
Base
8.5.1
273
273
273
Logic
Definition
273
of Situations
8.6.2
Examples
8.6.3
274
8.6.4
Nonmonotonic
274
Reasoning
with Time
Involving
Nonmonotonic
Reasoning
Formalisms
Reasoning
(Temporal Logics
and
Operators)
275
8.7.1
275
8.7.2
Subdivisions of Time
275
8.7.3
8.7.4
Possible
276
of RWT
Implementations
276
IS Collaboration: Blackboards
8.8.1
Blackboard Control
8.8.2
Typical Sequence
279
280
of Blackboard
Operations
Prom Production
Systems to Distributed,
an Agent?
Autonomous
280
Agents
281
8.9.1
What Is
8.9.2
Definitions
281
8.9.3
An
282
8.9.4
An
281
Example: NL Understanding
Agent
Agent Example: Network Monitoring
282
8.9.5
Agent Characteristics
8.10 Basic Agent Structures and Types of Agents
283
283
8.10.1
Generic Structure
283
8.10.2
Agent Types
BDI Agents
284
8.10.3
8.10.4
Theoretical
8.10.5
285
8.10.6
8.10.7
285
8.10.8
Multiple,
8.10.9
Software
8.10.10
274
Agent
284
Components of
Mobile
an
Agent
Agents
a Design Paradigm
and Distributed
285
285
Computing
Agents As
Software Standards
286
287
287
287
8.10.12
288
and Blackboards
8.11
References
288
8.12
Exercises
288
Soar
9.1
293
Soar Background
293
9.1.1
293
Soar History
Contents
IS Design and
9.1.2
9.1.3
9.2
9.3
Soar
Significant
294
Elements of Soar
and
Philosophy
and
xiii
Pragmatics
Examples
295
296
29(i
9.2.1
Soar
9.2.2
States and
Memory Architecture
9.2.3
Variables in Soar
297
9.2.4
298
9.2.5
9.2.6
Production
Memory (pm)
9.2.7
Started with
Getting
9.2.8
Arithmetic in Soar
Digging Deeper
in Soar
297
298
Objects
and Production
Syntax
298
299
303
into Soar
303
303
9.3.2
9.3.3
Preference
305
9.3.4
Operator Preference
9.3.5
SOAR
9.3.6
Steps
9.3.7
307
9.3.8
307
9.3.9
307
9.3.10
9.3.11
308
9.3.1
9.3.12
9.3.13
304
Memory
305
Preference
and Semantics
Operator
Syntax
Soar Operator Preference Resolution
in
305
306
308
309
313
Preference Use
309
9.4
Expanded
9.5
314
9.6
An
316
Example
9.6.1
9.6.2
9.7
9.8
of
Using
Soar for
"Lightbulb" Diagnosis
Operator-Based
Diagnosis
9.7.1
Simple
Text
9.7.2
An
9.8.3
Soar's
9.8.4
9.8.5
321
Output
Impasses, Subgoaling,
9.8.2
and
Learning
9.8.6
(Chunking)
Handling Impasses:
The
Soar
322
324
Resolution
Impasse
Impasse (Tie) Example
Chunks
321
322
Impasse
Debugging
9.9.1
Soar Is Different
Library
and Learning
Representations
Soar Visual Debugger
325
Activity
Available
Default
9.9
317
321
Input/Output
Why
317
Formulation
Soar
9.8.1
Cycle
325
Impasse
Contents
xiv
9.9.2
9.10
9.11
328
Soar, Ontologies,
and Other
Development
Aids
329
9.10.1
Background
329
9.10.2
Herbal
329
Really
Want to
Agents?
A Note About Different Soar
9.11.2
The Soar
9.11.3
330
9.11.4
330
9.11.5
10
Platforms/Implementations
9.11.1
Computational
329
Architecture
330
334
9.12
344
9.13
Exercises
347
Networks,
and Multivalued
353
Logic
353
10.1.1
Representing
10.1.2
10.1.3
10.2
Belief
Introduction
and
Manipulating Uncertainty
353
353
354
354
10.2.1
Conditional
354
10.2.2
10.2.3
Bayes Rule
Independence
10.2.4
10.2.5
Probability
355
355
356
to
Confidence
Factors
10.3
10.4
10.5
356
10.2.6
Joint
10.2.7
Bayes Rule
From
Probability
to Confidence
357
358
Factors
359
10.3.1
Introduction
359
10.3.2
Confidence Factors
360
10.3.3
A Heuristic
10.3.4
360
10.3.5
10.3.6
362
10.3.7
Approach
360
Approach
to
OR Formulations
Belief Networks
361
362
362
10.4.1
Definitions
362
10.4.2
363
Multivalued
Logic
364
10.5.1
10.5.2
Extension to Multivalued
364
10.5.3
364
10.5.4
Logics
Simple Heuristic Three-Valued Logic System Example
Formalizing MVL: Truth Sets and Truth Values
364
365
Contents
10.6
11
10.5.5
10.5.6
and
11.1
36G
Logic
369
Exercises
Representing
370
and
Manipulating Uncertainty
in
IS,
Part 2:
Fuzzy Systems
373
FuzzyCLIPS
373
11.1.1
373
Examples
of
11.1.2
11.2
11.2.2
11.2.3
11.3.2
11.3.3
11.6
11.7
12
Membership
Functions
Membership
Resulting
The Extension Principle
Fuzzy System
375
Functions
375
from Set-Theoretic
37!)
Operations
379
Structure
380
380
Major Components
Linguistic
Fuzzy
380
Variables
381
381
Procedures
381
11.4.2
Fuzzy Computational
11.4.3
The Plethora of
11.4.4
11.5
Representing
Sets with
General
11.3.1
11.4
374
11.2.1
11.3
Mechanisms
382
383
383
384
11.5.1
385
11.5.2
387
Exploring Uncertainty
and
Fuzzy Concepts
with CLIPS
387
387
11.6.1
Introduction to FuzzyCLIPS
11.6.2
Implementing Confidence
11.6.3
Factors in
388
FuzzyCLIPS
391
413
Exercises
417
Planning in IS
12.1
xv
Introduction
417
418
12.1.1
Path
12.1.2
Blocks World
12.1.3
Planning
12.1.4
12.1.5
Planning Representations
Representation Choice: Explicit Representation
12.1.6
420
12.1.7
Developing
421
12.1.8
Plan Generation As
12.1.9
Planning
12.1.10
Cycles
Planning
418
Related to
Production
System
419
419
of
Everything
Representation
a
421
Control Problem
Allowing
419
Derivable Information
or
Objectives
422
422
423
Contents
xvi
12.2
12.1.12 Trade-offs
424
424
12.2.3
12.3
12.4
Another
Simple
Plan Generation
427
12.3.2
427
Cataloging (Remembering)
The
Triangle
Example:
and
Re-Using
428
Plan
428
Table
Triangle
Table for
Properties
Planning, Abstraction,
430
Blocks-Moving Problem
Triangle
Table
430
432
432
12.5.2
12.5.3
Parallel Actions in
and
Subgoals
12.5.1
12.8
426
Algorithms
12.4.3
12.7
426
Generate-and-Test
12.4.2
12.6
425
(Robot) Example
STRIPS
12.3.1
12.4.1
12.5
424
from Abstract
433
435
Space
436
Planning
436
12.6.1
More Is Better?
12.6.2
to
Multiagents
or
Parallel Actions
....
CLIPS
Planning Implementations
12.7.1 The Sample Problem
12.7.2
440
12.7.3
438
440
449
Soar
Checkerboard
12.8.2
More Elaborate
450
Blocks
12.9
13
488
Exercises
493
Relationship
Biology
13.3.1
and ANN
Physical
493
494
Building Blocks
(Biological)
Neurons
494
13.3.2
Abstracting
13.3.3
13.3.4
13.5
The
495
495
497
and Notation
Training
13.5.1 Training Considerations
....
496
The
13.5.2
493
of IS to ANNs
13.3.5
13.4
436
438
in
497
501
501
(GDR)
501
Contents
13.6
13.7
13.5.3
A Formulation
13.5.4
Output
13.5.5
Unit
50 !
Introducing Delta
Corrections
Weight
50(i
507
MLFF ANN:
13.6.1
How
13.6.2
A Theoretical Result
Comprehensive
MLFF ANN
and
Training
xvii
Application Examples
513
513
51 I
51 1
13.7.1
Fruit Classification
511
13.7.2
Blocks Movement
516
13.7.3
Learning
an
A/D
Converter Function
518
13.8
Resources
51 i)
13.9
References
52(1
13.10 Exercises
14 Neural Networks
520
Networks and IS
Applications
527
14.1
Introduction
527
14.2
527
14.2.1
Network Parameters
528
14.2.2
Network
14.2.3
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.7
and Network
529
and Behavior
530
531
Capacity
14.3.1
Weight Prescriptions
531
14.3.2
532
14.3.3
Network
Capacity
Storage Prescription
Estimation
Recurrent Network
533
and Example CAM
Applications
14.4.1
Design Procedures
General Design Procedure
14.4.2
Another CAM
14.4.3
Recurrent Networks:
Example: Design
Energy Analysis
14.5.2
Example:
Summary
of the Generalized
4 Network
533
533
of
Simple Hopfield
Network
534
Patterns
14.5.1
14.5.3
14.6
Dynamics
Determining and Quantifying Network States
Energy
Function
Hopfield
Network
536
536
538
539
Equations
540
540
14.6.1
Optimization
540
14.6.2
14.6.3
14.6.4
The Overall
14.6.5
Design
Example: Partitioning
Process
Weights
of Sets
Statement,
541
541
542
542
543
14.7.1
Problem
14.7.2
Problem Representation
543
14.7.3
Constraints
544
14.7.4
Network
Energy
Case
#1
Functions
543
545
xviii
14.8
Contents
14.7.5
Solving
14.7.6
Looking at W
for
14.7.7
Case
Weights
547
#2: Optimization
State
Traveling
and the
Example:
Representation
Embedding Constraints
Constraints and
Mapping
14.8.3
14.8.4
14.8.5
Discrete
14.8.6
Sample Results
Other Sample CSP Applications
The Psychology
into E
Objectives
549
550
Weights
Hopfield Unit Bias
or Continuous
548
549
14.8.2
14.8.7
547
Salesman Problem
in E
14.8.1
14.9
546
and Biases
550
Unit Models
551
551
551
Memory (BAM)
551
Structures
14.9.1
The Order of
14.9.2
14.9.3
14.9.4
14.9.5
Architecture
556
14.9.6
556
14.9.7
14.9.8
BAM
as
551
Thought
Partitioned
of Connection
(James)
552
552
Recurrent)
Structure
554
558
Bipolar Hopfield
562
14.10 References
563
14.11 Exercises
564
15 Neural Networks
569
15.1
Biological
15.2
569
15.2.1
Determining
569
15.2.2
Clustering Similarity
15.2.3
Clustering Complexity
15.2.4
Clustering Algorithm
15.3
Justification
The c-Means
569
"Natural Clusters"
Measures
570
570
Parameters
571
Algorithm
571
15.3.1
Algorithm Description
15.3.2
ID c-Means
571
and Visual
Simple
Example
Example: Clustering Digits (0,1,2,..., 9)
Self-Organizing Feature Maps (SOFM)
Interpretation
15.3.3
15.4
572
574
574
15.4.1
Introduction
574
15.4.2
Unit
574
15.4.3
575
15.4.5
577
15.4.6
Algorithm Properties
and Discussion
577
15.4.7
Example
15.4.8
Validation and
15.4.4
Topologies
Simple
1-D SOFM
Interpretation
576
578
of the
Resulting
SOFM
580
Contents
15.4.9
15.5
15.6
15.7
16
Another
Example:
2-D SOFM
(NG) Self-Organizing
Algorithm
Application
NG
15.5.2
15.5.3
Engineering
15.5.4
NG Example
15.5.5
Validation of NG
15.5.G
Growing
Neural Gas
Digits
581
Network
15.5.1
and
to 11 X 8
xix
583
583
Array Used?
Pragmatic
58-1
Concerns
58-1
585
Example
585
587
(GNG)
588
15.6.1
Algorithm Description
588
15.6.2
GNG
589
Example
Approaches
589
15.7.1
Batch SOFM
590
15.7.2
Batch NG
590
15.8
References
591
15.9
Exercises
591
Learning in IS
16.1
595
Introduction to Machine
16.1.1
Learning (ML)
595
Preface
595
16.1.2
16.1.3
Learning
about
an
IS?
595
Learning
596
16.1.4
16.2
16.3
598
599
Components
16.2.2
600
16.2.3
601
16.2.4
601
16.2.5
Case-Based
602
16.3.1
602
16.3.3
System
16.2.1
16.3.2
600
and Specific-to-General
General-to-Specific (G-S)
Representations and Descriptions
The Training Sets
(S-G) Approaches
603
16.3.5
16.3.6
Description
16.3.7
Specific
16.3.8
16.3.9
Modification
(S-G) ("Opening"
Description) Approach
General-to-Specific (G-S) ("Narrowing" the Description) Approach
the
2-D Geometric
Example: Learning
Reasoning
16.3.11 Generalization
Learning
and
Operators
Decision Trees
603
605
605
to General
16.3.10 Inductive
602
603
16.3.4
16.4
CBR
597
.
Descriptors
Truth/Falsity
Preservation
605
606
607
608
609
612
xx
Contents
16.4.1
Synopsis of
the ID3
613
16.4.2
Approach
Sample Exemplars (ID3 Input Data)
16.4.3
613
Components
(Information) Entropy
16.4.4
16.4.5
The ID3
16.4.6
ID3
16.4.7
An ID3
16.4.8
16.4.9
613
614
615
Algorithm
618
Algorithm Examples
Application: Learning
621
Musical Structures
Example:
629
16.4.10 ID3
16.4.11
16.5
16.6
Converting
632
Rule Set
640
640
Exemplars
640
16.5.2
ID3 Results
640
16.5.3
16.5.4
Determination of
641
Resulting Classification
Rules
642
Exercises
642
17.2
Genetic
Computation
649
Algorithms
649
650
17.2.2
Applications
Chromosomes, Genes, the Genome,
17.2.3
GA as
17.2.4
Critical Aspects of
17.2.5
Evolutionary Computing
649
Biology Suggests
17.2.1
and Other
in IS
17.1
17.5
16.5.1
Concepts
17.4
17 Genetic
17.3
625
Search and
a
and
Genotypes
Optimization Technique
Genetic
(Programming)
and
Phenotypes
650
651
Solution
653
654
656
17.3.1
Problem Formulation
656
17.3.2
Objective
Selection, Crossover,
657
17.3.3
17.3.4
Sample Results
17.3.5
670
17.3.6
Extension:
675
Function
and Mutation
Modifying
658
659
to the
Traveling
Salesman Problem
17.4.1
The TSP
17.4.2
17.4.3
(TSP)
679
680
Complexity
of the TSP
680
681
683
17.5.2
The
684
17.5.3
Blueprint-Based Crossover
684
17.5.4
Sample
685
Blueprint Representation
Blueprint-Based Representation Results
684
Contents
17.6
Fusing Learning
and
Problem Motivation
685
17.6.2
Background
680
686
17.6.5
Genetic Recombination of
688
17.6.6
Crossover
Graphs
687
688
17.7
A Genetic
17.8
Swarm
Intelligence
694
17.8.1
Natural Behavior
694
17.8.2
Definition
695
17.8.3
17.8.4
Ant
17.8.5
17.8.6
17.8.7
17.8.8
17.9
Approach
to
Optimizing
gcc
A.2
A. 3
695
a
Algorithms (How
Path)
Developing and Applying an Artificial Ant Colony Algorithm
Return to the Traveling Salesman Problem
695
697
References
Minimum
697
697
698
700
700
691
Compiler Options
17.10 Exercises
685
17.6.1
17.6.3
xxi
Sets
705
705
A. 1.1
Basic
A. 1.2
Operations
Concepts
on
705
Sets
706
Relations
706
A. 2.1
Properties
707
A.2.2
Relations As Functions
707
Graphs
708
A.3.1
Subgraphs
A.3.2
Directed
Graphs
A.3.3
Directed
A. 3.4
Trees
Fundamentals of
708
(Digraphs)
708
Relations
708
709
Prolog
B. l
Introduction
B.2
711
711
and Goals
711
B. 2.1
Variables
712
B.2.2
Goals
712
B.2.3
Examples
713
B.2.4
The
Anonymous Variable
714
B.2.5
714
B.2.6
B.2.7
Recursion in
716
Prolog
716
xxii
B.3
Contents
B.2.8
B.2.9
Prolog and
B.2.10
Predicates
Lists in
B.4
B.5
Arithmetic
to
Verify
the
717
Type
of
Term
List Representation
B.3.2
A List Example
List
Prolog
717
718
Membership
Databases
718
B.4.1
718
B.4.2
718
Backtracking
B.5.2
The
Concept
Logic
in
of
()
Negation
719
as
Failure
719
719
Prolog
B.5.3
B. 7
718
Prolog
B.5.1
B.6
717
717
Prolog
B.3.1
B.3.3
717
is
719
B.6.3
721
722
720
720
721
Prolog
References and
B.7.1
Books
722
B.7.2
Web References
722
Pragmatics
723
C. l
Elementary
Matrices
C.2
Vectors
724
C.3
Linearity
725
C.4
726
C.5
Measures of
Space
727
C.6
728
C.7
729
C. 8
Similarity
723
in Vector
729
Fundamentals of
Lisp
733
D. l
The Roots of
Lisp
733
D.2
First
Principles
D.2.1
Programs
D.2.2
D.3
D.4
The
733
and Data Are Lists
D.3.2
Some
D.3.3
Basic Function
D.3.4
Special Symbols
References
Special Forms
Groups
733
734
734
and Evaluation
734
735
735
736
737
Contents
D.4.1
Implementations
D.4.2
Online Common
xxiii
737
Lisp
738
Bibliography
739
Index
755