Appendix B

A Quick Look at the Del Operator

We use the del operator to take the gradient of a scalar function, say f(x, y, z):
f = i

f f f
+ j +k .
x
y
z

If we factor out the function f, the gradient of f looks like

f = i + j + k f .
x
y
z

The term in parentheses is called del and is written as

= i + j + k .
x
y
z

By itself, has no meaning. It is meaningful only when it acts on a scalar

function. The term operates on scalar functions by taking their derivatives
and combining them into the gradient. We say that is a vector operator acting on scalar functions, and we call it the del operator.
Since resembles a vector, we consider all the ways that we can act on vectors and see how the del operator acts in each case.
Vectors

Del

Operation

Result

Operation

Result

Multiply by a scalar a

Aa

Operate on a scalar f

Dot product with

another vector B

AB

Dot product with

vector F(x, y, z)

Cross product with

another vector B

AB

Cross product with

vector F(x, y, z)

443

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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics: A Continuum Approach

Divergence
Lets first compute the form of the divergence in regular Cartesian coordinates. If we let a random vector
F = Fxi + Fy j + Fz k,

then we define

Fy Fz

F
divF = F = i + j + k Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = x +
+
.
x
y
z
x
y
z

Like any dot product, the divergence is a scalar quantity. Also note that, in
general, div F is a function and changes in value from point to point.
Physical Interpretation of the Divergence
The divergence quantifies how much a vector field spreads out, or diverges,
from a given point P. For example, the figure on the left (Figure B.1) has
positive divergence at P, since the vectors of the vector field are all spreading as they move away from P. The figure in the center has zero divergence
everywhere since the vectors are not spreading out at all. This is also easy
to compute, since the vector field is constant everywhere and the derivative
of a constant is zero. The field on the right has negative divergence since the
vectors are coming closer together instead of spreading out.

FIGURE B.1
Vector Fields

In the context of continuum mechanics, the divergence has a particularly

interesting meaning. For solids, if the vector field of interest is the displacement vector U, the divergence of this vector tells us about the overall change
in volume of the solid. See equation (3.5) and homework problem (3.2), both
in Chapter 3, in this textbook. When we have U = 0 we know that the
volume of a given solid body remains constant, and we can call the solid

Appendix B: A Quick Look at the Del Operator

445

incompressible. For fluids, we use the velocity vector V to talk about the deformation kinematics. The divergence of the velocity vector tells us about the
volumetric strain rate, and when we have V = 0 we say that the flow is
incompressible. This generally allows us to neglect changes in fluid density
and say that density remains constant (Chapter 8, equation 8.9).
Example
Calculate the divergence of
F = xi + yj + zk .

F =

( x ) + ( y ) + (z ) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.
x
y
z

This is the vector field shown on the left om Figure B.1. Its divergence is
constant everywhere.

Curl
We can also compute the curl in Cartesian coordinates. Again, let
F = Fxi + Fy j + Fz k,

and calculate

curl F = F =

x
Fx

y
Fy

F F F F F F

= i z y + j x z + k y x .
y
z
y
z z
x x
Fz

Not surprisingly, the curl is a vector quantity.

Physical Interpretation of the Curl
The curl of a vector field measures the tendency of the vector field to swirl.
Consider the illustrations in Figure B.2. The field on the left, called F, has curl
with positive k component. To see this, use the right hand rule. Place your

446

Introduction to Engineering Mechanics: A Continuum Approach

right hand at P. Point your fingers toward the tail of one of the vectors of F.
Now curl your fingers around in the direction of the tip of the vector. Stick
your thumb out. Since it points toward the +z axis (out of the page), the curl
has a positive k component.
The second vector field G has no visible swirling tendency at all so we
would expect G = 0 . The third vector field doesnt look like it swirls
either, so it also has zero curl.

FIGURE B.2
Vector Fields

Examples
Example 1
Compute the curl of F = yi + xj .

F =
x
y

y
x

= 2k.
z
0

This is the vector field on the left in Figure B.2. As you can see, the analytical
approach demonstrates that the curl is in the positive k direction, as expected.
Example 2
Compute the curl of H = xi + yj + zk , or H(r) = r.

H =
x
x

y
y

= 0.
z
z

Appendix B: A Quick Look at the Del Operator

447

This, as youve probably guessed, is the vector field on the far right in
Figure B.2.

Laplacian
The divergence of the gradient appears so often that it has been given a special name: the Laplacian. It is written as 2 or and, in Cartesian components, has the form
2 f =

2 f 2 f 2 f
+
+
.
x 2 y 2 z 2

It operates on scalar functions and produces a scalar result. When we take

the Laplacian of a vector field,

F = Fxi + Fy j + Fz k,

we get

2 F = (2 Fx )i + (2 Fy ) j + (2 Fz )k .

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