IMPORTANT TERMS

Absorption spectrum- A graph of the relative ability of a pigment to absorb different

wavelengths of light.

Action spectrum- A graph of the relative rates of reaction of a process as influenced by

different wavelengths of light.

Anabolic reactions- Reaction where large molecules are constructed from small ones.

Anoxygenic Photosynthesis- Photosynthesis that doesnt require oxygen

ATP synthetase- The entire complex of enzymes that converts ATP to ADP and
phosphate

Bacteriochlorophylls- Light harvesting pigments involved in bacterial photosynthesis

C3 (Calvin/Benson) Cycle- conversion of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

C4 metabolism- a set of metabolic reactions in which carbon dioxide is fixed temporarily

into organic acids that are transported to bundle sheaths, where they release the carbon
dioxide and C3 photosynthesis occurs.

Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation- The synthesis of ATP to ADP and phosphate using

the energy of an osmotic gradient and a gradient of electrical charge; occurs in
chloroplast and mitochondria.

Chlorophyll- Pigment involved in capturing light energy that drives photosynthesis.

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)- A metabolism in which carbon dioxide is

absorbed at night and fixed temporarily into organic acids. During daytime, the acids
breakdown, carbon dioxide is released, and C3 photosynthesis occurs.

Cyclic electron transport- The flow electrons from P700 back to plastoquinone in
photosynthesis, such that there is proton pumping but no synthesis of NADPH

Cytochromes- Small electron carriers that contain iron

Electron Transport Chain- A series of electron carriers that transfer electrons from a
donor, which becomes oxidized, to a receptor which becomes reduced.

Entropy- A measure of disorder in a system.

Gluconeogenesis- Formation of glucose from 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde

Greenhouse effect- Warming of the surface and lower atmosphere of a planet due to
the Suns radiation that is absorbed by the surface of the planet and is given back off as
radiation and heat.

Heterotrophs- An organism that obtains its carbon from organic molecules, not from
carbon dioxide.

Light compensation point- The level of illumination at which photosynthetic fixation of

carbon dioxide just matches respiratory loss.

Light dependent reactions- Reactions directly driven by light.

Non cyclic electron transport- The flow of electrons from water to NADPH during the
light dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Oxidation state- A measure of the number of electrons added to or removed from a

molecule during a Redox Reaction.

Oxidative phosphorylation- The formation of ATP from ADP and phosphate, powered
by energy released through respiration.

Oxidized compounds- Compounds in which electrons are removed and oxidation state
is raised.

Oxygenic photosynthesis- Photosynthesis that generates oxygen as a result of

metabolic reactions.

Ozone- A triatomic very reactive form of oxygen that is a major air pollutant in the lower
atmosphere but a beneficial component in the upper atmosphere for it absorbs UV
radiation coming from the sun.

3-phosphoglyceraldehyde- type of carbon present in the two identical molecules when

RuBP and carbon dioxide reacts.

Photoautotrophs An organism that obtains its energy through photosynthesis.

Photons- A unit of intensity of light.

Photophosphorylation- The formation of ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of

light energy.

Photorespiration- The oxidation of phosphoglycolate produced when RuBP

carboxylase adds oxygen, not carbon dioxide, to RuBP

Photosystem I- The pigments and electron carriers that transfer electrons from P700 to
NADPH

Photosystem II- The pigments and electron carriers that transfer electrons from water to
P700 in photosynthesis.

Pigment- A coloring matter in plant tissues or cells.

Plastocyanin- A copper-containing electron carrier.

Plastoquinones- A class of lipid-soluble electron carrier.

Quality of sunlight- Refers to the colors or wavelengths the sunlight contains.

Quantum- A particle of electromagnetic energy.

Reaction center- A special chlorophyll a molecule actually involved in the transfer of

electrons in photosynthesis.

Reduced compounds- Compounds that are added with electrons.

Reducing power- The ability of an electron carrier to force electrons onto another
compound

Ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate (carboxylase) - The enzyme in photosynthesis that

carboxylates RuBP thus bringing carbon into the plants metabolism.

RUBISCO- Ribulose-1, 5- Biphosphate Carboxylase.

Stroma- The colorless proteinaceous matrix of a chloroplast in which chlorophyllcontaining lamellae is embedded.

Stroma reactions- The set of reactions that occur in the stroma and are not directly
powered by light.

Substrate-level-phosphorylation- The formation of ATP from ADP by having a

phosphate group transferred to it from a substrate molecule.

Thylakoid lumen- The spaces inside the thylakoids, which are the photosynthetic
membranes of the chloroplast.

Z scheme- a diagram that depicts the redox reactions of the molecules from
photosystem II to photosystem I.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is the meaning of the word entropy? Does the entropy if a plant increase or
decrease while it is alive? After it is dead?
Entropy is a measure of a disorder in a system.
Entropy in a plant while it is alive it decreases.

 After it is dead, it undergoes the process of decaying where its molecules become
disordered and its entropy increases.
2. Name several examples of photoautotrophs and several of heterotrophs. How do
photoautotrophs obtain energy? Can a plant be heterotrophic while seedling and
photoautotrophic when older?
Photoautotrophs: green plants, all cyanobacteria, and few bacteria capable of
photosynthesis.
Heterotrophs: All animals, all completely parasitic plants, all fungi, and
nonphotosynthetic prokaryotes.
Photoautotrophs obtain energy by means of the sunlight coming from the sun. A plant
can be a heterotrophic while its a seedling and be photoautotrophic when its older.
3. ATP is an important chemical involved in many of a plant and animals metabolic
reactions. Yet any plant has only a small amount of it. Can you explain this? When
ATP enters a reaction and forces it to proceed, what is ATP converted into? What
then happens to the molecule?
ATP is an important chemical involved in many of a plant and animals metabolic
reactions. Yet any plant has only a small amount of it. The reason behind this is
because each molecule is recycled and reused repeatedly, thousands of times per
second. ATP is converted to ADP (Adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate by
metabolic reactions, but the phosphate can be attached with a high energy bond by
the reactions of either photosynthesis or respiration.
4. Name three methods of phosphorylation
Methods of phosphorylation:
1.

Photophosphorylation

2.

Substrate-level phosphorylation

3.

Oxidative phosphorylation

5. What is reduction reaction? Why does a reduction reaction always occur

simultaneously with an oxidation reaction?

 Reduction Reaction- it is a type of reaction where an atom is added with an electron.

Reduction reaction occur simultaneously with oxidation reaction because oxidation
reaction contains a great amount of oxygen which has a strong tendency to pull
electrons away from an atom and raise that atoms partial positive charge while
reduction reaction contains hydrogen which is more stable and tends to give up
electrons reducing the atoms partial positive charge so after an atom has been
oxidized, it is also reduced at the same time.
6. In organic molecules, we calculate the oxidation state of carbon by assuming that
each oxygen has an oxidation state of -2. Each hydrogen has an oxidation state of
+1. Calculate the oxidation state of carbon in each of the following: CO2, CH2O
and malic acid.
CO2= +4
CH2O = +0
Malic acid = +4
7. Two of the following are oxidizing agents and two are reducing agents. Which are
which: NAD+, NADP+, NADH, and NADPH?
Oxidizing agents: NAD+, NADP+
Reducing agents: NADH, NADPH
8. In photosynthesis, what is the ultimate source of electrons? What are the benefits
of this molecule in terms of its toxicity and the cost of the plan to obtain it?

The ultimate source of electrons in photosynthesis is water and carbon dioxide.

Water and CO2 molecules are non-toxic so it is safe to absorb them in large
quantities.

Water and carbon dioxide is abundant and inexpensive occurring almost everywhere.

9. Describe the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll. Why does it match the action
spectrum of photosynthesis?

Chlorophylls absorb little of the very short wavelength light at 400 nm, and little
photosynthesis occurs, however lights at slightly longer wavelengths, about 425 nm,
is absorbed well by chlorophyll a, and photosynthesis proceeds. This matches the

action spectrum of photosynthesis because the action spectrum of photosynthesis

shows which wavelengths are most effective at powering a photochemical process.
10. Chlorophyll does not use high-energy quanta. Why not? What would happen to the
chlorophyll if it did? It also does not use long wavelength radiation either. Why
not?

Chlorophyll does not use high energy quanta because they have too much energy. If
chlorophyll used high energy quanta, then it wont be able to absorb pigments
because the energy would just knock them off. It also does not use long wavelength
radiation either because they have so little energy per quantum that they cannot
appreciably boost an electrons energy.

11. The most common accessory pigments in land plants are chlorophyll b and the
carotenoids. Algae that live in deep water have other accessory pigments because
only ______-_______ light penetrates deeply in water.
Blue - green
12. Name the electron carriers that transport electrons from photosystem II to
photosystem I. which one contain metal atoms, and which do not?
a.) Phaeophytin a chlorophyll a molecule that does not contain magnesium atom
b.) Q- a molecule of quinone
c.) Plastoquinone does not contain metal atoms
d.) Cytochrome b6/F complex- contains an iron atom
e.) Plastocyanin- contains a copper atom
13. When photosystem I produces NADPH, its reaction center P700 chlorophyll a
loses electrons. What would happen if photosystem II did not supply new
electrons to P700?

If photosystem II did not supply new electrons to P700, there wont be any production
of ATP.

14. When electrons are removed from water, protons are liberated. Does this occur in
the stroma or inside the thylakoid lumen? Can protons move directly across the
membrane? Describe the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis in
chloroplasts.

When electrons are removed from water, protons are liberated. This occurs inside the
thylakoid lumen. Protons cannot move directly across the membrane because they
may need to pass through the intrinsic protein channel (of ATP synthase).
Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane,
down their electrochemical gradient. More specifically, it relates to the generation of
ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular
respiration. Hydrogen ions (protons) will diffuse from an area of high proton
concentration to an area of lower proton concentration. Peter Mitchell proposed that
an electrochemical concentration gradient of protons across a membrane could be
harnessed to make ATP. He linked this process to osmosis, the diffusion of water
across a membrane, which is why it is called chemiosmosis. ATP synthase is the
enzyme that makes ATP by chemiosmosis. It allows protons to pass through the
membrane and uses the kinetic energy to phosphorylate ADP, making ATP. The
generation of ATP by chemiosmosis occurs in chloroplasts and mitochondria as well
as in most bacteria and archaea.

15. Is ADP converted to ATP directly by the reaction center chlorophylls? Do the
enzymes that synthesize ATP obtain the necessary energy by interacting directly
with the reaction center cholorophylls?
No, ADP is not directly converted to ATP by the reaction center chlorophylls. Proton
flows through ATP synthase channels and powers phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.
16. What chemical is the acceptor of carbon dioxide in the C3 cycle? What enzyme
catalyzes the reaction, and what is the product?
The chemical acceptor of carbon dioxide in the C3 cycle is RuBP (ribulose 1,5biphophate)
The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction is RuBP carboxylase (RUBISCO)
The product is
17. RuBP Carboxylase is by no means an ideal enzyme. Describe some of the
problems with its active site and its substrate specificity. If we compare the amino
acid sequences of this enzyme from many different species, they are almost
identical. What is the significance of this uniformity?

 Like chlorophyll a, RuBP carboxylase is by no means ideal. Its active site recognizes
and binds to carbon dioxide only poorly, and it has low substrate specificity,
frequently putting oxygen rather than carbon dioxide onto RuBP. Yet its enzyme is
highly conserved evolutionary. The amino acid sequences of RuBP carboxylase from
all plants are virtually identical. Apparently, all mutations that cause any change in
structure, however slight, disturb the active sites and are selectively
disadvantageous.
18. Which chemicals are useful for energy storage on a short-term basis? Which are
for intermediate term and which are for long term?
Short-term storage: ATP and NADPH can be used within the cell and last only briefly.
Intermediate-term storage: The simple sugar glucose and the disaccharide sucrose
are stable enough to be moved from cell to cell, either in the vascular tissue of a plant or
in a blood stream. They are also sufficiently stable to last for weeks or months. A
problem with storing large quantities of monosaccharide or disaccharide is that they
cause cells to absorb water by osmosis.
Long-term storage: Starch is large, high-molecular-weight polymer of glucose, too
large to be transported. It is even more stable than glucose, lasts for years, and does
not cause the cell to absorb water. Lipids are an even more concentrated storage form
of energy that can be synthesized rapidly and stored in large quantities.
19. What is the quality of light? How does it differ for plants in deserts, grasslands,
and the canopy of a forest versus for plants in the understory? How does it differ
for algae that grow near the surface of a lake or ocean versus those that inhabit
deep water far below the surface?
Quality of light refers to the colors or wavelengths it contains.
For plants in the deserts, grasslands and the canopy of a forest it is evident that
during sunset and sunrise, sunlight passes tangentially through the atmosphere, and a
large percentage of the blue light is deflected upward; consequently, light at the ground
level is enriched in red which is easily visible. This period of red-enriched light only lasts
a few minute and probably has a little effect on photosynthesis. At noon, light passes
nearly vertically through the atmosphere, more blue light is transmitted, and even
though the blueness of the sky suggests that all reds, greens and yellows have been
blocked, in fact enough of all of these wavelengths penetrate to Earths surface to allow

efficient photosynthesis. While understory plants, and the light that they receive has
already passed through the leaves of the canopy.
For algae the grow near the surface of the lakes or oceans receive complete light,
but water absorbs red and violet, while algae at deep regions receive mostly green and
blue light and must have special accessory pigments capable of absorbing these
wavelengths efficiently.
20. How is the quantity of light affected by a plants location relative to the equator or
the poles? On one side of a mountain or the other? On one side of a valley or the
other?
Plants growing near the equator receive intense light because the sun is always more or
less directly overhead at noon, whereas plants near the poles receive very little light.
Plants growing in the shadows of the mountains or in deep canyons receive much less
light than plants that grow on slopes that face the sun.
21. Imagine a leaf in bright light but an atmosphere with no carbon dioxide. Would
RuBP carboxylase be functioning? Would NADP be in reduced or oxidized form?
A leaf in bright light but an atmosphere with no carbon dioxide, the RuBP
carboxylase would not be functioning because it needs carbon dioxide for it to
function.
NADP would not be reduced nor oxidized because it also needs carbon dioxide.
22. Name some of the brightest environments. Describe some protective adaptations
that plants may use to shade themselves.
Some of the brightest environments include the deserts, grasslands, tropical
rainforests and etc. The production of a thick layer of dead trichomes may be
necessary for them to protect themselves from extreme radiation or sunlight. A
heavy coating of wax can also reflect light. Cutin is very good at absorbing harmful
short wavelengths.
23. An important factor for plants is the amount of water lost for each molecule of
carbon dioxide absorbed. How could the plant be harmed if it loses a lot of water

for each carbon dioxide molecule, that is, if the ratio is high? Would this be more
important for a plant in a rainy habitat or one in a desert?
If the plant loses a lot of water for each carbon dioxide molecule, it would dry out and
wither. This is only applicable to those inhabiting the rain forest where there is a
large amount of water that the plants receive.
24. In a C4 plant, where is PEP carboxylase located? Where is RuBP carboxylase
located?
The PEP carboxylase is located in the mesophyll of the leaf in a C4 plant.
RuBP is located exclusively in the bundle sheath chloroplast.
25. In a CAM plant, are the stomata open during the day or the night? How does this
affect the amount of water the plant loses when its stomata are open?
In a CAM plant, the stomata are open at night where it is cool and closes during the
day where it is hot. The opening of the stomata at night is effective for conserving
water.
26. As a CAM plant makes and stores acids during the night, how does this affect the
plants acidity (its pH)? Think about the acidity of your own blood. Do you think it
is allowed to vary by any large amount?
This greatly affects the plants acidity because CAM metabolism is not very
efficient, that the total amount of carbon dioxide is so small that it may be entirely
used in C3 metabolism after just a few hours of sunlight.
27. In habitats where water conservation is not especially necessary, is CAM
metabolism more or less advantageous than C3 or C4 metabolism? Why?
Under milder, moister conditions, CAM metabolism is not selectively advantageous. Water
conservation is less of a benefit, and the limited capacity to absorb and store carbon
dioxide is a distinct disadvantage. C3 and C4 plants photosynthesize all day, whereas
CAM plants may stop before noon.

28. What is global warming? What is the main gas that causes it? What would happen
if the Earths atmosphere had a lower concentration of CO2 than it is now? What
would happen if it had more?
Global warming is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's
atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of
carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants
Greenhouse gas (CO2, etc.)causes global warming
With less carbon dioxide, more heat would be lost and Earth would be frozen, like Mars.
With more, more heat would be trapped our world would be as hot as Venus, at 800
degrees Celsius.
29. What is the Kyoto Protocol? How many countries have signed it? Name one
country that has not signed it. What are two substances burned in the United
States (and all other countries) that produce CO2? Which two countries have large
populations and may soon surpass the United States in production of greenhouse
gases?
The Kyoto Protocol is a treaty designed to reduce production of greenhouse gases.
It is signed by 166 countries
United States did not sign it.
Gas and Oil (Or Coal and Natural Gas)

China and India have large populations and may soon surpass the United States in
production of greenhouse gases