THERMAL PROCESSES

UNIT 1 : THERMAL PROCESSES

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Machining processes that involve chip formation have a number of inherent
limitations which limit their application in industry. Large amount of energy are
expended to produce unwanted chips which must be removed and discarded.
Much of the machining energy end up as undesirable heat that often
produces problems of distortion and surface cracking. Cutting force require
that the workpiece be held which can also lead to distortion. Unwanted
distortion, residual stress, and burrs can caused by the machining process
often require further processing. Finally, some geometry is too delicate to
machine while others are too complex.

In view of these limitations, many non traditional machining (NTM) methods

have been developed since World War II to address the growing list of
machining requirements which cannot be handled by conventional machining
alone. Advantages of NTM method may include the ability to machine:
 Complex geometries beyond simple planar or cylindrical features
 Parts with extreme surface finish and tolerances requirements
 Delicate components that cannot withstand large cutting forces
 Parts without producing burrs or inducing residual stress
 Brittle materials or materials with very high hardness

NTM processes can be divided into four groups based upon the material
removal mechanism; - chemical, electrochemical, mechanical, and thermal. In
this unit students will be exposed to thermal processes which processing
involved applications of high temperatures in much localized regions
evaporate materials.

1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing the unit, students should be able to:

1. List types of thermal processes.
2. Explain the working principle of Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Waterjet
Machining (WJM), Chemical Milling (CM), Chemical Blanking (CB), Laser
Beam Machining (LBM), Electron Beam Machining (EBM), and Plasma
Arc Cutting (PAC).
3. Describe the advantages and disadvantages for each type of thermal
processes.
4. State some application of thermal processes that had been learned.

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1.3 ULTRASONIC MACHINING

Ultrasonic machining is a non-traditional machining process in which
abrasives contained in slurry are driven at high velocity against the work by a
tool vibrating at low amplitude of around 0.076mm and at high frequency of
approximately 20000 Hz. The tool oscillates in a direction perpendicular to the
work surface and is fed slowly into the work so that the shape of the tool is
formed in the part. However, it is the action of the abrasives, impinging
against the work surface, which performs the cutting. The general
arrangement of the ultrasonic machining is depicted in figure below.

FIGURE 1.1 Ultrasonic machining

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FIGURE 1.2 Schematic illustration of Ultrasonic Machining

Common tool materials used in ultrasonic machining include brass, mild steel,
carbide and stainless steel. The abrasive grains in ultrasonic machining
include boron nitride, boron carbide, aluminium oxide, silicon carbide and
diamond. Ultrasonic machining is best suited for materials that are hard and
brittle such as ceramic, glass, carbide and hardened steel.

Major factors which influence the metal removal rate, surface roughness and
accuracy are:
 Amplitude and frequency of the tool oscillation
 Impact forces
 Tool material
 Abrasive and content of the slurry

The cutting action in ultrasonic machining affects the tool as well as the work.
As the abrasive particles erode the work surface, they also erode the tool,
thus affecting its shape.

The slurry in ultrasonic machining consists of a mixture of water and abrasive

particles. Concentration of abrasives in water ranges from 20% to 60%. The
slurry must be continuously circulated in order to bring fresh grains into action
at the tool-work gap. It also serves the function of washing away chips and
worn grits created by the cutting process. Shapes obtained by ultrasonic

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machining include non-round holes, holes along a curved axis and coining
operations in which an image pattern on the tool is imparted to a flat work
surface.

1.3.1 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Advantages

1. Low tooling cost and cheap abrasives are used for the
machining operation.
2. Use of semiskilled workers for a precision work.
3. Absence of thermal stresses.
4. There is no appreciable rise in the temperature of the work,
hence no change in physical properties of the work material.
5. Good surface finish and dimensionally accurate profile could
be generated with ease.
6. Brittle materials like glass and ceramic can be machined quite
efficiently.

Disadvantages

1. This process requires special tooling for each job.

2. Poor material removal rate.
3. The power consumption is high.

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1.4 WATERJET MACHINING

When we put our hand across a jet of water or air, we feel considerable
concentrated force acting on it. This force results from the momentum change
of the stream. In water jet machining, this force is utilized in cutting and
deburring operations. The water jet acts like a saw and cuts a narrow groove in
the material. A pressure level of about 400MPa is generally used for efficient
operation, although pressures as high as 1400MPa can be generated. Jet-
nozzle diameters range between 0.05mm and 1mm.

A variety of materials can be cut including plastics, fabrics, rubber, wood

products, paper, leather, brick and composite materials. Depending on the
materials, thicknesses can range up to 25mm and higher. It is an efficient and
clean operation compared to other cutting processes. It is also used in the food
processing industry for cutting and slicing food products.

FIGURE 1.3 Schematic illustration of Waterjet Cutting

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1.4.1 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Advantages

1. Cuts can be started at any location without the need for

predrilled holes.
2. No heat is produced.
3. No deflection of the rest of the workpiece takes place.
4. Little wetting of the workpiece takes place.
5. The burr produced is minimal.
6. Environmentally safe manufacturing process

Disadvantages

1. Lack of suitable pumping equipment.

2. High cost of the equipment.
3. Pressure too high (55000-60000 Psi) can cause dangerous

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1.5 CHEMICAL MILLING

Chemical milling was the first chemical machining process to be
commercialized. During World War II, a U.S. aircraft company began to use
chemical milling to remove metal from aircraft components. Today chemical
milling is still used largely in the aircraft industry to remove material from aircraft
wing and fuselage panels for weight reduction. It is applicable to large parts
where substantial amounts of metal are removed during the process. The cut
and peel maskant method is employed. A template is generally used, which
takes into account the undercut that will result during etching. The sequence of
processing steps is illustrated in figure below.

FIGURE 1.4 Sequence of processing steps in chemical milling: (1) clean raw part.
(2) Apply maskant, (3) scribe, cut and peel the maskant from areas to be etched, (4)
etch and (5) remove maskant and clean to yield finished part.

Chemical milling produces a surface finish that varies with different work
materials. Surface finish depends on the depth of penetration. As the depth
increases, the finish becomes worse. Metallurgical damage from chemical is
very small, perhaps around 0.005mm into the work surface.

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1.5.1 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Advantages

1. Material can be removed uniformly from all surfaces exposed

to the etching solution.
2. Material can be removed after parts are formed to shape.
3. Highly skilled operators are not required.
4. Close tolerance can be maintained and surface finish is good.
5. Operating costs are generally less than in machine milling.
Also, equipment cost is less.

Disadvantages

1. Aluminium is the only metal being chemical milling on a

commercial scale.
2. The depth of cut is limited when masking is used; gas collect
under the mask and cause uneven etching.
3. Masking techniques for certain conditions are expensive.
4. Gas generated in the process must be carried away

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1.6 CHEMICAL BLANKING

Chemical blanking uses chemical erosion to cut very thin sheetmetal parts
down to 0.025mm thick and also for intricate cutting patterns. In instances,
conventional punch and die methods would not work because the stamping
forces would damage the sheetmetal or the tooling cost would be prohibitive, or
both. Chemical blanking produces parts that are burr free, an advantage over
conventional shearing operations.

Methods used for applying the maskant in chemical blanking are either the
photoresist method or the screen resist method. For small and/or intricate
cutting patterns and close tolerances, the photoresist method is used. The
steps in chemical blanking for screen resist method are shown in figure below.

FIGURE 1.5 Sequence of processing steps in chemical blanking: (1) clean raw
part, (2) apply resist (maskant) by painting through screen, (3) etch (partially
completed) and (5) removed resist and clean to yield finished part.

Application of chemical blanking is generally limited to thin materials and/or

intricate patterns. Hardened and brittle materials can also be processed by
chemical blanking where mechanical methods would surely fracture the work.

Tolerances as close as 0.0025mm can be held on 0.025 mm thick stock when

the photoresist method of masking is used. As stock thickness increases,
more generous tolerances must be allowed. Screens resist masking methods
are not nearly as accurate as photoresist.

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1.6.1 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Advantages

1. Extremely thin metal can be worked without distortion.

2. No burrs are left on the edges.
3. Setup and tooling costs are low.
4. Design change costs are low

Disadvantages

1. Skilled operators are required.

2. Etchant vapours are quite corrosive.
3. Maximum metal thickness is small.
4. Good photographic facilities are necessary.

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1.7 LASER BEAM MACHINING

Lasers are being used for a variety of industrial applications, including heat
treatment, welding and measurement, as well as scribing, cutting and drilling.
The term laser stands for “light amplification of stimulated emission of
radiation”. A laser is an optical transducer that converts electrical energy into
a highly coherent light beam. A laser light beam has several properties that
distinguish it from other forms of light. It is monochromatic (the light has a
single wavelength) and highly collimated (the light rays in the beam are
almost perfectly parallel). These properties allow the light generated by a
laser to be focused using conventional optical lenses, onto a very small spot
with resulting high power densities. The highly focused, high density energy
melts and evaporates portions of the workpiece in a controlled manner.

FIGURE 1.6 Laser beam machining (LBM)

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There are several types of laser used in manufacturing operations.

1. CO2(pulsed or continuous wave)
2. Nd : YAG (neodymium:yttrium-aluminum-garnet)
3. Nd : glass, ruby
4. Excimer lasers (from the words Exited and dimmer, meaning two mers
or two molecules of the same chemical composition).

Laser beam machining is widely used for drilling and cutting metals,
nonmetallic materials, ceramics and composite materials. Holes as small as
0.005mm, with hole depth-to-diameter ratios of 50:1, have been produced in
various materials, although a more practical minimum is 0.025mm. Steel
plates as thick as 32mm can be cut with laser beams.

FIGURE 1.7 Laser light excitation

1.7.1 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Advantages

1. Lasers can machine through transparent material and vaporize

any known material.
2. They have small heat-affected zones and work easily with non-
metallic hard materials.

Disadvantages

1. High cost of equipment.

2. Low operating efficiency.
3. Difficulty in controlling accuracy.
4. Use primarily for small parts.

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1.8 ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING

Electron beam machining (EBM) is one of several industrial processes that use
electron beams. Electron beam machining uses a high velocity stream of
electrons focused on the workpiece surface to remove material by melting and
vaporization. The machine utilizes voltages in the range of 50 kV-200 kV to
accelerate the electrons to speeds of 50% to 80% of the speed of light. Its
applications are similar to those of laser beam machining, except that EBM
requires a vacuum.

FIGURE 1.8 Schematic illustration of the electro beam machining process. Unlike
LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so workpiece size is limited to the size of the
vacuum chamber

The lens is capable of reducing the area of the beam to a diameter as small
as 0.025mm. On impinging the surface, the kinetic energy of the electrons is
converted into thermal energy of extremely high density, which melts or
vaporizes the material in a very localized area. The interaction of the electron
beam with workpiece surface produces hazardous x-rays. Therefore only
highly trained personnel should use the equipment.

Electron beam machining is used for a variety of high precision cutting

applications on any known material. Applications include drilling of extremely
small diameter holes down to 0.05mm diameter, drilling of holes with very
high depth-to-diameter ratios, more than 100:1 and cutting of slots that are
only about 0.025mm wide. These cuts can be made to very close tolerances
with no cutting forces or tool wear. The process is ideal for micro machining
and is generally limited to cutting operations in thin parts in the range from
0.25 to 6.3 mm thick.

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1.8.1 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Advantages

1. Very hard, heat resistant materials could be machined easily.

2. No physical or metallurgical damage result in the workpiece.
3. Close dimensional tolerance could be achieved since there is
no cutting tool wear or pressure.

Disadvantages

1. The equipment costs are high and operator of high skill is

required for carrying out operations.
2. The power consumption is exceedingly high.
3. The electron beam operation can be carried out only in
vacuum.

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1.9 PLASMA-ARC CUTTING

Plasma is defined as a superheated, electrically ionized gas. Plasma arc cutting
(PAC) uses a plasma stream operating at temperatures in the range from
10,000 to 14,000C to cut metal by melting. The cutting action operates by
directing the high-velocity plasma stream at the work, thus melting it and
blowing the molten metal through the kerf.

FIGURE 1.9 Plasma Arc cutting (PAC)

The plasma arc is generated between an electrode inside the torch and the
anode workpiece. The plasma flows through a water-cooled nozzle, which
constricts and directs the stream to the desired location on the work. The
resulting plasma jet is a high velocity, well-collimated stream with extremely
high temperatures at its centre.

Gases uses to create plasma in PAC include nitrogen, argon-hydrogen, or

mixtures of these gases. Secondary gases or water are often directed to
surround the plasma jet to help confine the arc and clean the kerfs of molten
metal as it forms. Applications of PAC involve cutting of flat metal sheets and
plates. Operations include hole piercing and cutting along a defined path. The
desired path can be cut either by use of hand-held torch manipulated by a
human operator or by directing the cutting path of the torch under numerical
control (NC).

Plasma arc cutting can be used to cut nearly any electrically conductive
metal. The metals frequently cut by PAC include plain carbon steel, stainless
steel and aluminium. Parts as thick as 150 mm can be cut by this process.

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1.9.1 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Advantages

1. PAC can be applied for machining any material of any

hardness, even refractory materials can be machined
effectively.
2. The machining rate is quite high.

Disadvantages

1. The surface machined is not even and requires further

machining.

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1.10 SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied the:

1. Types of thermal processes.

2. Working principle of Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Waterjet Machining
(WJM), Chemical Milling (CM), Chemical Blanking (CB), Laser Beam
Machining (LBM), Electron Beam Machining (EBM), and Plasma Arc
Cutting (PAC).
3. Advantages and disadvantages for each type of thermal processes.
4. Common application of thermal processes that had been learned.

1.11 SELF TEST

1. List out the types of thermal processes.

2. List the sequences of processing steps in chemical milling.
3. Give the advantages and disadvantages for laser beam machining
processes.
4. List some applications of waterjet machining processes.

1.12 KEY TERMS

Residual stress – stress created in the body due to applied external force
Abrasive – Material for grinding, polishing, blasting, either in loose form or
bonded to form wheels, bricks, or files, or applied to paper and cloth by glue
or resin. Natural abrasives include emery, corundum, garnet, sand, flint, etc.
Metallic shot and grit are also used as abrasives in cleaning castings.
Monochromatic – the light has a single wavelength
Cathode – In electrolysis or electrochemical corrosion, a site on a surface
where actions in solution are neutralized by electrons to become elements
that either plate out on the surface or react with water to produce a secondary
reaction.
Anode – In electrolysis or electrochemical corrosion, a site where metal goes
into solution as a cation leaving behind an equivalent of electrons to be
transferred to the opposite electron, called the cathode.
Arc – A flash, caused by an electric current ionizing a gas or vapor.
Plasma – defined as a superheated, electrically ionized gas

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1.13 REFERENCES
Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R. Schmidt (2001). Manufacturing Engineering
and Technology, (4th Edition), state: Prentice Hall.
Mikell P. Groover (2002). Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing Materials,
Processes, and Systems, (2nd Edition), state: John Wiley & Son, Inc.
John A. Schey, (year). Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, (3rd Edition),
state: Mc Graw Hill.
E. Paul Degarmo, J T. Black, Ronald A. Kohser (2003). Materials and
Processes in Manufacturing, (9th Edition), state: John Wiley & Son, Inc.

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1.14 ANSWER

1. List out the types of thermal processes.

Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Waterjet Machining (WJM),
Chemical Milling (CM), Chemical Blanking (CB), Laser Beam
Machining (LBM), Electron Beam Machining (EBM), and Plasma
Arc Cutting (PAC).

2. List the sequences of processing steps in chemical milling.

Sequence of processing steps in chemical milling:
(1) clean raw part.
(2) Apply maskant,
(3) scribe, cut and peel the maskant from areas to be etched,
(4) etch and
(5) remove maskant and clean to yield finished part.

3. Give the advantages and disadvantages for laser beam machining

processes.

Advantages
 Lasers can machine through transparent material and
vaporize any known material.
 They have small heat-affected zones and work easily with
non-metallic hard materials.
Disadvantages
 High cost of equipment.
 Low operating efficiency.
 Difficulty in controlling accuracy.
 Use primarily for small parts.

4. List some applications of waterjet machining processes.

A variety of materials can be cut including plastics, fabrics,
rubber, wood products, paper, leather, brick and composite
materials. Depending on the materials, thicknesses can range up
to 25mm and higher. It is an efficient and clean operation
compared to other cutting processes. It is also used in the food
processing industry for cutting and slicing food products.

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