Strength and Deformation of the Earth's Lithosphere

Active Tectonics is essentially about deformation of Earth's outermost layers at a

variety of spatial and temporal scales. In this chapter, we explore the basic
principles of deformation of different rock types at a wide range of environmental
conditions. Much of our knowledge of rock deformation is based qualitatively on
observations by structural geologists. However, for quantitative strength
estimates and deformation parameters we draw particularly on rock mechanics
experiments, and observations by seismologists and geodesists.

Strength and deformation mechanisms vary in particular as a function of:

Composition - with less effect on frictional strength estimates and large effects on
crystal plastic strength. We are particularly interested in the rheology of major
constituents in crustal rocks, feldspar and quartz in continental crust, and olivine
in mantle rocks.

Confining pressure - in particular for brittle deformation mechanisms. Confining

pressure in the Earth increases approximately by 26 MPa/km in the crust and by
35 MPa/km in the mantle. The effective pressure Pe = Pl - Pp is less well known,
with estimates spanning the full range between hydrostatic and lithostatic pore
pressures.

Temperature - in particular for crystal plastic (dislocation creep etc.) deformation

mechanisms. The geothermal gradient lies between 15-35 C/km, with the lower
values being representative for stable cratons, and the higher values with
thinned crust or otherwise elevated gradients.

Strain rate - mostly for crystal plastic deformation mechanisms

Fluid content - Water may weaken a rock through the effective pressure effect at
brittle conditions and through hydrolytic weakening and diffusive processes
aiding ductile flow.

A number of deformation mechanisms may act under given conditions, however,

overall rocks will deform by the weakest mechanism (weakest link) available at

those conditions. That is, if we can define the distribution of rock types, pressure,
temperature, water content, and strain rate in the lithosphere as a function of
depth, we can determine a strength profile through the crust.

Deformation regimes in the Earth's crust

The following broad domains can be defined, with considerable debate still
existing about even the most fundamental issues:

Brittle upper crust: Deformation occurs by frictional faulting (on new or preexisting faults) and by cataclastic flow (distributed stable micro-fracturing).
Byerlee's friction law (empirically derived from experimental determination of
"maximum shear stress" on a wide range of rock types) is based on the concept
of Coulomb's friction law for pre-existing fault surfaces and predicts a linear
increase of rock strength with depth following the following relationship:

t = S + s* m, where t is the shear stress at failure of a pre-existing fracture, s is

the effective normal stress, and m is the coefficient of friction. Byerlee
determined m to be 0.85 and S = 0 at confining pressures up to 2000 bars (200
MPa), and m= 0.6 and S= 800 bars at greater confining pressures. The strength
increase with depth differs between extensional, strike-slip, and compressional
situations due to the different orientation of fractures and normal stresses on
them (Anderson's fault model). Apparently the frictional strength is rather
independent of mineralogy, strain rate, and temperature, however, each of these
parameters may have some effect.

Semi-brittle regime: Broad region within which both brittle cataclasis and crystal
plastic deformation mechanisms occur. Least well understood from experiments
and strength estimates vary widely in this region.

Ductile lower crust and asthenosphere: Depending on rock type, strain rate and
fluid content high-temperature ductile flow by dislocation creep and other crystal
plastic mechanisms dominates and causes rock strength to diminish rapidly with
increasing depth. The effect of stress on steady state strain rate follows a power
law rheology. Experimentally observed constitutive flow laws of the form

(e.g. Sibson 1983) predict that deformation rate (and thus fabric development) is
a function of the differential stress, (s1 - s3) raised to a power n. The brittleductile transition can thus be considered to be the depth beyond which the
activation of crystal-plastic dislocation creep, dynamic recrystallization, and/or
diffusive mass transfer of one or more mineral constituents allows the rock to
flow macroscopically. Below the transition a material will fail predominantly by
brittle fracture if its strength is exceeded.

Commonly, however, strength envelopes are modified (strength estimates

reduced in particular near in the semi-brittle regime) to account for parameters
not considered in the definition of the deformation laws.